Historical terms and concepts

Workshop handicraft industry is a form of production in which capital hires workers. But the number of employees is capitalist, which depends on the development of productive forces and the historical conditions of the country. When studying the germination of capitalism, most historical materials at that time could not distinguish family labor from wage labor. In principle, we regard factories with more than 10 people as workshops and handicrafts. This example was followed after the Opium War. 1929 "factory law" was promulgated, which stipulated that starting machines were used and those who employed more than 30 people were factories; Since then, the statistics are based on this, so we regard those who employ more than 10 (or less) but fail to meet the factory standards as workshop handicrafts. After liberation, the National Bureau of Statistics made statistics on factories with more than 10 employees, and the Central Handicraft Administration regarded factories with 4-9 employees as workshops and handicrafts. It turns out that machinery is a big industry. Workshop handicraft industry, individual and family industry are all concepts used in economic research, and it is impossible and meaningless to demarcate them rigidly. There is no clear definition of handicraft industry. At the beginning of the industrial revolution, it was considered an amazing move to replace human and animal power with steam engines, so power was used to distinguish between machines and labor. But in developed areas, steam engines are often replaced by ancient water turbines, which does not hinder the technological revolution. Another example is the mill with a long history, which has gone through various stages of manpower, animal power, wind power and water power. The steam engine is called the steam wheel mill, and it is still rotated by two stone mills. At the end of 19, the roller pulverizing and rolling system was invented, and the technological revolution was realized. The former can be called handicraft industry. In the 20th century, hand tools evolved into composite equipment, many of which applied the principle of precise mechanical or chemical reaction process. After the popularization of electricity, it is common for handicraft factories to add motors. Therefore, the study of industrial structure is mostly based on the scale of enterprises. For example, Japan often regards factories with less than 10 people as handicrafts; When the Japanese army occupied East China, it also stipulated that silk factories with 20 cauldrons or less were handicrafts. After World War II, the Federal Republic of Germany regarded those with less than 10 employees and annual sales of less than 300,000 marks as handicrafts. It seems more reasonable to divide by scale.

[Edit this paragraph] main form

There are two forms of manual workshops: decentralized and centralized. In the early period of workshop handicraft industry, scattered handicraft workshops were the main form. Producers still work in their own families, but they form production collectives under the organization of entrepreneurs and have a certain division of labor. In order to ensure the supply of goods, merchants hand over the raw materials purchased in a unified way to hired workers for processing, and then sell the finished products after paying a certain amount of remuneration. The so-called remuneration is essentially salary. This is a capitalist employment relationship, but it is not complete, because most of the processing tools are owned by employees themselves, and the labor process is also carried out by workers in their own homes. Each product is manufactured by different family workers in turn. With the further development of scattered handicraft workshops, centralized handicraft workshops have been formed. Workers have nothing and are concentrated in the capitalist's workshop, using the labor tools provided by the capitalists and working under the command of the capitalists. The laborer becomes a hired laborer who completely sells his labor force, and the relationship with the employer is a thorough employment relationship. In centralized manual workshops, the division of labor is becoming more and more detailed, and a product has to go through many processes. Simple cooperation, scattered handicraft workshops and centralized handicraft workshops are three forms of the early development of capitalism. Although they are inherited in time, they often coexist. Take Britain, the most typical capitalist economy. In Britain, the capitalist mode of production originated from the wool textile industry. At the beginning of the rise of wool textile industry, its production organization was guild workshops in cities and cottage industries in rural areas. There is no guild control in rural areas, and artisans are divided quickly. Businessmen control scattered producers in various ways, and simple cooperation is quickly transferred to handicraft workshops. As early as the15th century, scattered handicraft workshops appeared in the English countryside. Businessmen first buy wool in the market and give it to home textile workers to spin into wool. Then he collected wool, distributed it to weavers to weave it into woolen cloth, collected finished products for sale, and paid weavers and weavers wages. At this time, production was scattered, and weavers and weavers were mostly peasant women. They still keep some of their own means of production, and the capitalists are not very rich in funds and have no centralized factory equipment. At that time, this handicraft workshop was very common in the vast rural areas of Yorkshire in the north. In the16th century, centralized handicraft workshops mushroomed. John Winchecombe, a textile merchant in newbury, west London, owned a handicraft workshop of about 1000 people at the beginning of the 6th century, including 600 weavers, weavers and assistants, 250 combing and pruning workers, 50 tailors, 40 dyers and 20 tailors. With the development of centralized handicraft workshops, more and more small producers become employees because they can't stand the competition. In a petition 1539, they wrote: "There are looms in wealthy wool spinning businesses, and weavers and mechanics work by the day. Because of this, we petitioners who work in our own homes, including women and children, often lose our income. ..... However, in order to avoid unemployment and earn income, we poor subjects have to be forced to accept the work stipulated by the wool merchant. " In this way, the British wool textile industry developed rapidly, the output of wool products surged, but the output of wool decreased greatly. British woolen cloth has gradually occupied the primary position in the European market, and wool textile industry has become Britain's "national industry". In addition to the wool textile industry, glass, soap, gunpowder, writing paper and other manufacturing industries also generally adopt the form of handicraft workshops. Before the industrial revolution began in 1970s in 18, handicraft workshops had always been the basic form of industrial production organization. It has the following characteristics: first, the workshop handicraft industry is still dominated by manual labor, which is the main difference from later machine production; Secondly, the workshop handicraft industry is different from the previous family handicraft industry. It has been produced on a large scale and gradually implemented the division of labor in the production process, mainly including the division of labor in manual technology and the division of labor in hiring workers. Division of labor makes workers often engage in the operation of a production link, and their skills are more skilled, which not only improves labor productivity, but also increases the opportunities for improving technology, creating conditions for the invention and use of machines in the future.

[Edit this paragraph] Various performances

The capitalist nature of workshop handicraft industry is shown in the following aspects: first, the increase of minimum capital makes more and more means of production and means of subsistence turn into capital. A large number of workers are under the command of capitalists, which is the natural starting point of general cooperation and the starting point of workshop handicraft industry. The minimum number of workers that a single capitalist must use should be stipulated by the existing division of labor. The more the division of labor develops, the more workers are needed. In order to further benefit from the division of labor, the number of workers must increase in proportion. With the increase in the number of workers, variable capital will inevitably expand accordingly, and more means of subsistence will be converted into capital. With the increase of variable capital, constant capital will inevitably increase accordingly, and more means of production will be converted into capital. Therefore, "the minimum amount of capital in the hands of a single capital is increasing, or the means of social life and production are increasingly transformed into capital, which is the law produced by the technical nature of the workshop handicraft industry." Second, the workshop handicraft industry makes the labor force more subordinate to capital. Workshop handicraft industry, like simple cooperation, is the existence form of capital. However, the workshop handicraft industry goes further than simple cooperation. It produces division of labor and forms different levels among workers, namely skilled labor and unskilled labor, which fundamentally attacks the workers' labor force, "turns workers into deformed people" and loses the independent ability to produce the whole product. In the past, workers had to sell their labor to capitalists because they lost the means of production; Now, if they don't sell their labor to capitalists, they can't produce on their own. Workshop handicraft industry has further turned workers into appendages of capital, and the formal subordination of labor to capital has further developed into the actual subordination. Third, the handicraft industry in the workshop makes the workers' body and mind shrink, and the opposition between manual labor and mental labor is deepening day by day. Individual farmers or independent craftsmen must use their knowledge, judgment and will in production and consider the whole process of production. Combination of manual labor and mental labor. But in the workshop handicraft industry, this ability is transferred to the capital opposite to the workers. Workers are transformed into local workers, gradually losing the ability to master the whole production, and physical labor and mental labor are separated. Therefore, Marx said: "The product of the division of labor in the workshop handicraft industry is the intellectual opposition to treating workers as the property of others and the power to rule workers in the process of material production. This separation process started with simple cooperation, developed in the workshop handicraft industry and completed in the big industry. In simple cooperation, capitalists represent the unity and will of social workers in front of individual workers, workshops and handicrafts make workers develop abnormally and become local workers, while large industries separate science from labor as independent production capacity, forcing it to serve capital. " The division of labor between workshops and handicrafts, on the one hand, improves social labor productivity, on the other hand, makes local workers deformed and causes people's physical and mental atrophy. Therefore, "the wealth of capital in social productivity is conditional on the poverty of workers in individual productivity." Fourth, the division of labor between workshops and handicrafts has created new productive forces, and at the same time it has become a special method to produce relative surplus value. The workshop handicraft industry based on division of labor was originally formed spontaneously. However, "once consolidated and expanded, it will become a conscious, planned and systematic form of capitalist mode of production." This is because, on the one hand, workshop handicraft industry, as a new social labor organization, "has developed new and social labor productivity." On the other hand, because the division of labor of workshop handicraft industry is a unique creation of capitalist mode of production, it relies on the deformity of workers to develop social productive forces and strengthen the rule of capital over labor, so it is "just a special method to produce relative surplus value, that is, to strengthen capital ... self-proliferation by sacrificing workers". Marx brilliantly summed up the dual functions of the division of labor in the workshop handicraft industry: "On the one hand, it shows the historical progress and necessary development factors in the process of social and economic formation, on the other hand, it is a civilized and exquisite means of exploitation." As a means of producing relative surplus value, workshop handicraft industry was actually recognized when classical political economy was founded. "Political economy, as an independent science, was produced in the period of workshop handicraft industry. It only examines the social division of labor from the perspective of the division of labor in workshops and handicrafts, and uses the social division of labor as a means to produce more goods with the same amount of labor, thus making goods cheaper and accelerating capital accumulation. " In other words, when studying the division of labor, classical political economy pays attention to quantity and exchange value. On the contrary, Xenophon, Plato and other "classical and ancient writers only pay attention to quality and use value." These views are all one-sided.

[Edit this paragraph] Restrictions on the value of capital proliferation

(A) the factory handicraft industry to limit the value of capital proliferation. Workshop handicraft industry plays a very important role in improving labor productivity. However, because it is based on manual labor, its role in developing capitalism is limited. Fully aware that its "unique tendency" has encountered many obstacles. This is because: first, although the workshop handicraft industry divides workers into skilled workers and unskilled workers, its technical basis is handicraft labor, and a large number of skilled workers are still needed, and the number of unskilled workers is still very limited. In other words, capitalists feel that the labor value they pay is still relatively high. Second, although the workshop handicraft industry makes some operations tend to use female workers and child workers, on the whole, this tendency is destroyed by habits and the resistance of male workers. In other words, the scope of exploited workers is still limited. Third, although the workshop handicraft industry has reduced the education expenses of workers, thus reducing the value of the labor force, "the labor force in difficult places still needs a long study time, and even in places where this study time has become redundant, the workers are trying their best to keep it." In other words, the degree of exploitation is also subject to some objective restrictions. Fourth, because skilled handwork is still the foundation of handicraft industry in the workshop, workers are not completely attached to machines or capital, and capitalists have to constantly fight against workers' disobedience. In other words, capital has not yet established its absolute dominance over the labor force. (2) the inevitability of the development of workshop handicraft industry to machine mass production "workshop handicraft industry can neither master all social production nor fundamentally transform it". Because it is still a narrow technology based on manual labor. This narrow technical foundation represents a certain level of productivity development. When the new productive forces have not yet appeared and developed generally, it is impossible to fully develop the relations of production. Therefore, "the narrow technical foundation of the workshop handicraft industry itself has developed to a certain extent, which conflicts with the production needs created by itself." If capitalism wants to advance from the workshop handicraft stage, it must carry out technological revolution. Only on the basis of new technology can capitalist relations of production be greatly developed. During the period of workshop handicraft industry, there were workshops producing labor tools, and many different kinds of labor tools were produced. On this basis, further development, connecting different tools, gradually producing machines, making the workshop handicraft industry transition to the stage of machine industry. Machines have overcome the above contradictions, but they have also created new contradictions, which have brought the contradictions and confrontation of capitalism to a new stage.

Clan directory [hidden]

[Edit this paragraph] Overview

In primitive society, members of human social groups combined by the same blood relationship came from a common ancestor. Produced in the middle and late paleolithic period. They often use an animal or plant as the totem symbol of their tribe. In the clan, there are certain provisions on marriage, which prohibit the marriage between the elders and the younger generation, exclude the marriage between brothers and sisters, and even prohibit the marriage with the farthest collateral relatives of the mother. Clan members have equal status, collective labor, equal distribution and property sharing. Public affairs are managed by clan leaders, and major affairs are decided by clan meetings composed of clan members. Clan society experienced matriarchal clan society and paternal clan society, and disintegrated due to the development of private ownership in bronze age. A clan is a group of people who believe that they have the same ancestor and generally have the same totem.

[Edit this paragraph] Text

Social isomorphism formed by consanguinity. Also known as clan commune. It is the basic unit of social organization and economic organization in a certain development stage of primitive society. Clan clan came into being in the late Paleolithic period, and its main characteristics are: maintaining by blood, intermarriage outside the clan; The means of production are owned by the clan, and members work together to distribute products equally; Public affairs are managed by elected clan leaders, and major issues (blood feud, adoption, etc. ) are decided by the meeting of clan members. On the basis of economic life, clans have formed the same language, habits and primitive religious beliefs. The clans united into tribes. Clans go through two stages of development: matriarchy and patriarchy. Matriarchal system is the inevitable product of low productivity and early group marriage in primitive society. Under this system, people can't determine the father of the child, only know the mother of the child; Women manage agriculture and housework, and play a leading role in economic life. They occupy a dominant position in the clan, their lineage is calculated by maternal line, and their property is inherited by maternal blood relatives. With the development of animal husbandry and the transition from group marriage to pairing marriage, men are in a dominant position in economic life. People can know exactly the father of the child, and the descent is changed to paternal calculation, and the property is inherited by the paternal blood relatives. Men became the center of maintaining the clan, and matriarchal system was replaced by patriarchy.

Goumang directory [hidden]

The origin of Gou mang

Related historical records

custom

[Edit this paragraph] The origin of Gou Mang

Gou Mang has long been regarded by historians as a figure in ancient myths and legends. He is the eldest son of Fu's four sons, emphasizing, responding, cultivating and learning. Fu Xishi appointed him to the East to preside over the observation of Jupiter. The east belongs to wood, so it is also called wood official and spring official. Or Gou Mang, who later became Taeho K's assistant officer and Shao Hao's uncle. Gou Mang can write Ju Mang again, adding the word "last month" to the left, while the ancient sound still reads "Gou" (tick). The ancient reading of "Goushan" in Haizhou is because the Gou Mang clan intermarried with the Changxi tribe living here, forming a new clan system. Changxi tribe is a clan that looks at the moon. He is the inventor of the twelfth lunar month. The Goumang clan is the inventor of the October solar calendar, and the combination of these two tribes has formed a new clan system, which is the "Yi" tribe. The moon on the left represents Chang Xi, and the sentence on the right is Gou Mang. Yishan is a proof that Yi people once lived in a famous mountain named after a tribe.

[Edit this paragraph] Related historical records

There are records in Shan Hai Jing and Zuo Zhuan, calling him "an aspect of human body" and "stepping on two snakes". This period of history of Goumang tribe was recorded in detail in Chapter B of Chu Silk Book of Warring States discovered in Changsha ammunition depot in 1980s. Chu people are descendants of the Ju Mang family who went south. It is confirmed in silk that Zhong, Gai Gang, Xiu and Xiu are the four sons of Fuxi Nuwa. Fuxi sent them to the east, west, north and south to measure the day and night degrees of the stars and the sun, and put forward their own measurement data, so as to formulate calendars and guide agricultural production. These four sons are astrologers Yu and Li, who are responsible for the operation and changes of the four seasons in different regions. So Sigufang is the place where four ancient nationalities lived. They took some animals as their main totems and formed the Four Elephants. Rudong-Tai Hao-Qinglong-Main Spring-Muzheng. And Gou Mang is the assistant officer who assisted Tai Hao in the East Palace. The portrait depicted in the rock paintings of General Cliff is a commemoration and reverence for the descendants of Goumang, and the descendants of Gou Mang are one of the ancestors who sacrificed their ancestors.

[Edit this paragraph] Customize

Beginning of spring offered sacrifices to the headstrong god. Mang God is also known as Gou Mang, and Zheng Xuan notes: "Gou Mang, the wood is right." This means that Gou Mang is the official of the ancient Lord, so he is also called the God of Haruki. According to the five elements of wood, fire, water, earth and gold, wood is in the first place, which is the beginning of all things in the East. The legendary Gou Mang is the god in charge of farming, and his image is "one bird, one side, walking in two dragons". Folks believe that Mang Shen is a young figure, holding a whip, wearing a red dress, a black cloth around his waist, a straw hat and sandals on his feet. He is full of energy and well informed. When offering sacrifices to spring cattle and mountain gods, grass statues should be posted, and they all have a fixed size. For example, the height of Mount Mang is 3 feet, 6 inches and 5 minutes, which symbolizes a bumper harvest for 365 days a year. The whip cloud is made of wicker and has a strong smell. The whip is 2 feet 4 inches long, representing 24 solar terms in a year. The whip rope spun with hemp yarn is dyed in five colors and divided into 24 periods, which means that there are 24 festivals a year and a bumper harvest.

FOLDER

Zhi Zhi archives paper archives are a kind of archives with paper as the carrier, such as original documents and manuscripts of official documents, drawings, letters, telegrams, household registration books, account books, contracts, certificates, manuscripts, diaries, notes and genealogies. Paper is one of the four great inventions in ancient China, and paper files were first produced in China (see paper documents). In the Eastern Han Dynasty, paper was used to write documents. After Wei and Jin Dynasties, the number of paper-based official documents increased gradually, but the simplified version was still the main document. At the end of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, at the end of 403 AD, Huan Xuan stood in the position of Jin and ordered all official documents to be written in paper. He said in the imperial edict: "There was no paper in ancient times, so the use of Jane was not based on respect. Today, everything that is simple is replaced by yellow paper. " Since then, a large number of paper documents have been produced. From the 4th century to the end of 17, China's papermaking was first introduced to Viet Nam, Korea, Japan, Arab countries, European countries, American continent, and even the whole world, which promoted the development of world archives. The use of paper has led to a sharp increase in the number of documents. Take the archives formed by the Pope as an example: before paper was used, during the period of 1243 ~ 1254, an average of 730 archives were formed every year; During the nine years from 1294 to 1303, an average of 50,000 sheets were formed each year, an increase of nearly 70 times. Paper documents have many advantages and are easy to manage and use. Contemporary audio-visual archives and machine-readable archives have greatly increased, but paper archives still occupy the main position in the world archives collection.