The Discovery and Development of Jade Articles in China

China ancestors chose beautiful stone to grind jade, which was first found in a pair of white jade blocks at Xinglongwa Culture site in Chahai, Inner Mongolia 2000 years ago, indicating the germination and establishment of jade industry in China in the late Paleolithic period about 1 10,000 years ago. In China, jade has a history of more than 5,000 years since the Paleolithic Age. It records the changes of human life and society, many years earlier than gold, silver, copper and iron. From Paleolithic Age to slave society and feudal society, wearing jade represents people's social status. From grinding jade to exquisite jade carving works, jade has developed with the development of society, and jade culture has become more and more abundant-Yulong and Jade Bi in Neolithic Age, Jade Knife and Jade Brother in Shang and Zhou Dynasties, Sword ornaments and hooks in Spring and Autumn Period, Ruishou in Han Dynasty, Flower and Bird Hairpins in Tang and Song Dynasties, and large-scale jade carvings in Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. Especially in the Qing Dynasty, the carving art reached the peak of China jade carving history. It is worth mentioning that Yu Pei, made by Lu Zigang, a craftsman in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, created a precedent for Yu Pei ornaments, with pictures and texts, novel composition and exquisite craftsmanship, and is still highly respected by people today, commonly known as "Zigangpei". It adds more gorgeous colors to jade culture. Meiyu is our favorite in the East. Orientals often use jade to compare people's virtue, while Confucianism emphasizes that "a gentleman must wear jade" and "jade goes away without reason". The data unearthed in China prove that there were jade articles in the early Neolithic period. A small number of jade beads, jade tubes and jade jun were found in the Neolithic cultural site in Hemudu, Zhejiang Province. But the origin of jade in China should be earlier than this. Jade was born out of the matrix of stone tools, far beyond the stone tools. At first, it was just a small jade block drilling a hole to hang ornaments, or grinding it into jade weapons or tools like grinding stone tools. In the late Neolithic period, jade articles were only carved or polished products, which were large and complicated in shape and could be regarded as handicrafts. In the Neolithic age, grinding stone tools was the main symbol, so was the technology of processing jade stone tools. Stone-making technology has developed from beating to grinding for thousands of years, and jade-making technology has also gone through the same process. The two may be exactly the same in technology and tools, but jade has other requirements besides practicality, so the technical requirements are more complicated than making stone tools. Jade not only requires higher smoothness than stone tools, but also can carve various patterns, which is out of people's aesthetic needs and is a non-practical artistic decoration. This is rare on stone tools.

Neolithic Age

Production tools and weapons such as Yufu, Jade shovel, Jade knife and Jade Ge are of practical value in Neolithic jade, and jade rings, jade balls, jade bracelets, jade yellow, jade jun, jade beads and jade tubes are used as decorations. Jade articles in this period are simple and plain, with different thicknesses and irregular shapes. In the later period, jade gradually separated from stone tools and embarked on the process of independent development in technology and art, which laid a social and technical foundation for the development and perfection of jade crafts in later generations.

With the use of bronzes or the combination of stone and stone, the production tools have been greatly improved, the social productivity has been improved, and the proliferation and accumulation of material wealth have promoted the formation of classes and the emergence of countries. The history of Xia Dynasty, the first slave country in China, has not been fully revealed and needs further study. So the jade is still unknown, so we have to pay temporarily. Slavery in Shang Dynasty was extremely developed, and slaves had been put into all fields of social production and life. With the development of agriculture, there is a fine division of labor within the handicraft industry, and the jade-making process is separated from the stone making and becomes an independent handicraft department. At the same time, slaves of Shang Dynasty created splendid bronze culture. The application of bronze tools in jade-making technology has greatly improved jade-making technology, and jade-making tools have gradually replaced stone tools with bronze.

Jade articles in Yin and Shang Dynasties obviously evolved from jade articles in primitive society. In the early Shang Dynasty, Erlitou culture produced jade, moon, shovel, GUI, Yan, knife, yellow and other vessel-shaped jade articles, which reached a very high level in modeling, carving, drilling and polishing. In Yin Ruins, figures, animals, gods, spirits and other jade carvings have greatly increased, the technological level has improved, many new breakthroughs have been made, and many exquisite works have been created. At this time, jade articles have been used for enjoyment, mostly as handicrafts. More than half of the 755 jades unearthed from the Muhao Tomb in Yin Ruins are decorative jades, exceeding the sum of ritual vessels, ceremonies, tools and miscellaneous items. This shows that Shangyu's social function has changed greatly.

Yin ruins

There are many kinds of jade in Yin Ruins, which can be roughly divided into seven categories according to their shapes and uses: ritual vessels, ritual vessels, tools, utensils, decorations, works of art and miscellaneous items. The ritual vessels used are scallion, tuanling, GUI, Bi, Huan, Jun, Gui and Pan. For ceremonial purposes, there are knives, spears, implements, cymbals and knives. There are axes, chisels, hoes, saws, knives, spinning wheels, shovels, sickles and so on. Daily use includes mortar, pestle, comb, ear spoon, dagger, silk bag, etc. The number of decorations is the largest, including wearing ornaments, ornaments, rings, pendants, beads and so on. There are few works of art, and 1 Yulong, 2 Jade Tiger and 1 Strange Bird in Muhao Tomb are all excellent works of art.. Miscellaneous utensils include jade chain and jade retort. Jade carving is one of the important handicrafts in Yin Dynasty. Judging from the modeling design and artistic style of jade in Yin Ruins, its achievements are no less than those of bronzes in Yin Dynasty. However, in the past, due to the lack of information, people focused on bronze culture, and little research was done on jade carving art which interacted with it. Jade in Yin Ruins is an integral part of China's ancient cultural heritage, which fully embodies the high wisdom and creative ability of the vast number of jade carving artists in Yin Dynasty. The discovery of these jade articles not only enables us to fully understand the jade carving art of the Yin Dynasty, but also has important reference value for studying the history of jade carving in China and the social, economic and cultural problems of the Yin Dynasty.

Zhou dynasty

Zhou dynasty was a powerful slave country after Shang dynasty, with developed agriculture and handicraft industry. The rulers of the Zhou Dynasty paid attention to summing up the lessons of the subjugation of the Shang Dynasty, rectifying various systems and measures of the slave society, and making them orderly and standardized, so as to maintain and consolidate their own rule. As far as jade is concerned, because Zhou Li, an important law in Zhou Dynasty, endowed jade with the ideal and connotation of virtue, Zhou Yu left the development track of jade wares in Yin Dynasty and developed in the direction of ritual jade, which opened up a new era of moralization, religiousization and politicization of jade and laid a theoretical foundation for the study of ancient jade in Zhou Li in later generations. In the Zhou dynasty, the wind of valuing jade was extremely strong. Jade is used for sacrifices, and bronze is used for banquets. Because of the secularization and moralization of jade, everyone has worn jade since the emperor. The scope of jade in Zhou Dynasty, the importance attached to jade, the requirements of selecting jade and the technology of making jade were all improved compared with before. In the Zhou Dynasty, jade carving technology and modeling design were constantly improved, and the utensils were carefully trimmed and polished to make them more beautiful. In terms of workmanship, in addition to inheriting the double hook line of Shang Dynasty, there are rough slope lines, which are often made into the outer contours of eyes, ears, mouth, body and tail, making the shape clear, concise and powerful; The details mostly use negative lines or parallel negative lines, and emphasize the contrast and change of its thickness and flatness on the grinding plane, which reduces the ups and downs of the body. This is the characteristic of jade articles in the Western Zhou Dynasty.

the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, which lasted for more than 500 years, ironware was widely used in production, which greatly promoted the development of productive forces and affected the reform of social system. This period, in essence, is a period of great social change in which backward slavery collapsed and advanced feudal system gestated and grew. Several political and economic centers coexist, and a brand-new situation of "a hundred schools of thought contend" has appeared in the cultural and academic fields. Qin, Jin, Yan, Qi, Chu, Wu, Yue, Bashu and other local cultures compete with each other and prosper together, laying a solid foundation for the growth of the unified culture of the Chinese nation. The unearthed jade also reflects this historical fact. The handicraft industry of jade took a turning point in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and the production of jade was exquisite and extraordinary, which wrote a glorious page in the history of ancient jade.

As far as its social form is concerned, the Spring and Autumn Period is a transitional period, which is also reflected in the jade craft. It still inherits the decorative patterns of dragons and phoenixes or imaginary deformed animals on bronzes in the Western Zhou Dynasty, but it has a brand-new and meticulous carving style. In the Warring States period, the proportion of animal themes on jade articles increased, and the skills were exquisite, which profoundly and vividly showed the fierce character and sense of alertness of carnivores. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the preaching that "a gentleman is more valuable than jade" and "a gentleman cannot go without a reason" was advocated, so a wide variety of jade prevailed at that time. This social custom has a certain influence on the development of jade crafts, that is, the simplification and miniaturization of jade ornaments, and the advent of jade articles such as swords and belts. Jade for sword first appeared in the Spring and Autumn Period and prevailed in the Warring States and Han Dynasties. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, jade articles are common, such as cong, yellow, bi, bracelets, rings, sword ornaments and ornaments, among which jade bi and dragon ornaments are the most common. In addition, there are jade belt hooks, jade seals and various buried jade.

surname

Qin destroyed the six countries and established an unprecedented powerful centralized feudal empire. Korea inherited the Qin system, implemented various policies to recuperate, developed production, and consolidated and developed a unified and powerful feudal country. The jades unearthed in this period are huge, bold in carving, various in variety and exquisite in skill. At this time, the ruling class used jade more widely in social etiquette and daily life, and gradually formed a brand-new style of the times. Jade in Han Dynasty is a great breakthrough in jade carving art in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, which is famous for its exquisiteness, and has a great influence on jade in later generations.

Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-25 AD)

Inherited the characteristics of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and the change was not too great. Due to the convenient transportation in the Eastern Han Dynasty, nephrite from Xinjiang flowed into the Central Plains, and jade carving was further developed. In addition to jade jade, jade ring, chicken heart, sword, hook and jade cicada, there are a large number of "ritual vessels" and various containers, ornamental objects, as well as a large number of vessel shapes used to ward off evil spirits and dislike victory. Moreover, the shapes and decorations of various vessels are full of myth and mystery.

Wei, Jin, southern and northern dynasties

Due to the influence of thin burial in troubled times, few jade articles have been unearthed, so its development is not clear. Judging from the jade articles unearthed sporadically, such as jade retort, jade bi and jade belt hook, it has changed little since the Han Dynasty, and it is almost difficult to identify them. Some of its carvings are fine, some are extensive, and the jade quality is not as bright as that of the Han Dynasty.

Sui and Tang Dynasties

With prosperous economy, developed culture and close foreign exchanges, Chang 'an has become an international city. At this time, handicrafts are extremely prosperous, and handicrafts are also important commodities in foreign trade. However, few jade articles were unearthed in this period, and only several kinds of jade cups, jade ornaments, jade buckles, jade belts, jade girls and jade carvings are known. The styles of jade articles and utensils in Tang Dynasty are different from those in Han Dynasty, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. There are a lot of flowers and birds and figures, and the utensils are rich in life. The increase of cups and bowls with practical value indicates the emergence of new ornaments and jade belt ornaments of official rank.

Northern and Southern Song, Liao, Xixia, Jin and Yuan Dynasties

Since the Song Dynasty, practical jade and decorative jade have occupied an important position in society and spread widely. Compared with ritual artifacts, they are called "playthings" and their polishing level is also very high. Due to the influence of the north-south regime and different national cultures, jade articles reflect national and local characteristics. Jade in Song Dynasty, with dragon and phoenix as auspicious patterns, was influenced by meticulous painting and attached great importance to expression. In Song Dynasty, not only industry and commerce flourished, Taoism prevailed and Neo-Confucianism flooded, but also jade carvings were influenced. Jade carvings with the theme of tortoise, crane and dragon and phoenix are the reflection of these social thoughts at that time. The jade articles of Xixia, Liao, Jin and Yuan dynasties are mainly decorated with flowers and birds, tigers, deer and fish, and there are many ornaments and inserts. Practical products include cups, washing products, plates and so on. Handicrafts with birds, fish and animals as themes have increased, and grinding jade has integrated into the national survival consciousness and local feelings.

the Ming Dynasty

In the Ming Dynasty, the productive forces developed greatly, the urban handicraft industry and commerce flourished, and the jade manufacturing industry was also quite developed. At this time, the trend of jade carving is further secularization. Neo-Confucianism flooded in the Ming Dynasty, and Taoism and folk beliefs were deeply rooted in people's hearts. People demand social stability and pray for God's blessing in order to achieve the prosperity of this world. This social requirement is reflected in the technical field, that is, auspicious patterns are very popular. The auspicious patterns of jade articles in the Ming Dynasty include immortals such as the Eight Immortals and Samsung, figures such as longevity and happiness, animals and plants such as peaches, ganoderma lucidum, plums, bamboos, orchids, deer, cranes and mandarin ducks, and birds and animals such as dragons, phoenixes, tigers and horns. Auspicious patterns sometimes become theme patterns and sometimes are decorated, showing the extensiveness and depth of auspicious patterns. In the Ming Dynasty, due to the prevalence of drinking tea, jade pot cups appeared and increased day by day. This kind of jade carving is the most modern. At the same time, following the Song Dynasty, the wind of antique art in Ming Dynasty gradually formed, which affected the prosperity of antique jade in jade production. Antique jade originated in Song Dynasty and prevailed in Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is mainly transformed from bronzes and ancient jade. Calligraphy and painting in Ming Dynasty further influenced the development and improvement of arts and crafts. At this time, the jade craft was more or less influenced by literati painting, grinding freehand brushwork landscapes and poems. This kind of jade, which embodies the literati's interest, was not available in the previous generation. The relationship between jade and social and cultural life is getting closer and closer. Scholars often use jade stationery or jade as decoration when painting and writing in their study. In order to consolidate its feudal rule, the Ming rulers followed the old system and used jade to mark the aristocratic rank. Different from the previous generation, the number of jade belts tied to official uniforms increased, and the leather belts of emperors, princes, princes, Xu horses and yipin Wenwu Baiguan were all decorated with jade plates. Jade carving in Ming dynasty has the style of the times, rough and powerful knife work, and very fine carving "three-layer through carving method" Beijing, Suzhou and Yangzhou were the three centers of jade carving at that time. Song Dynasty's "Heavenly Creations" said: "Although good workers gather in the capital, they skillfully push Su County." Suzhou jade carving technology was pushed to the top of the country at that time, which made a historic contribution to the development and improvement of jade carving technology in Ming Dynasty. After the mid-Ming Dynasty, jade carving techniques developed rapidly, and many jade carving masters appeared, among which Lu Zigang was the most famous, and the jade he carved was called "Zigang Jade". However, in the last polishing and fine grinding process of Yu Zhuo in Ming Dynasty, there was a phenomenon of "seeking shape without effort".

Ching Dynasty

Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of feudal society in China, which made great contributions to the formation and consolidation of a multi-ethnic unified country. Under this historical background, jade has developed unprecedentedly, forming the highest peak in the history of ancient jade in China. Its beauty, workmanship, output and wide application are incomparable to jade in any dynasty in history. During the hundred years from the early Qing Dynasty to the twenty-four years of Qianlong, due to the difficulty in obtaining jade materials, the production and development of jade articles in the Qing Dynasty were very slow, and the workmanship of jade articles in this period was similar to that in the late Ming Dynasty. Jade articles in Qianlong period grew and developed on this basis, and entered its heyday from the 25th year of Qianlong. After half a century, it turned into a low tide and even declined. With the fall of the Qing Dynasty, the history of ancient jade in China came to an end. Jade in Qianlong period is the representative of jade in Qing dynasty. Besides imitation jade, it can be divided into antique jade and fashionable jade. Antique jade, one is antique, that is, imitating the shape and pattern of Shang and Zhou bronzes; The other is imitation of Han jade. When making jade articles, their shapes are varied, and their patterns and workmanship are extremely colorful. The rise of imitation jade in Doustin began after local officials in Xinjiang collected Dustan jade and paid tribute to the court, which was appreciated by Emperor Qianlong and issued a will. Handustan jade, also known as Indian jade and Mughal jade in the west, has the shape and pattern of Arabic style. Characterized by "water mill", strong polishing, and the utensils are as thin as paper. Among the imperial poems of Emperor Qianlong, there are dozens of articles praising dushan jade's exquisite craftsmanship. The level of jade carving reached its peak in Qianlong period, far exceeding that in Yuan and Ming dynasties. Skillful craftsmen in this era inherited and used the excellent heritage of jade carving skills in previous dynasties, and drew lessons from the achievements in painting, sculpture, technology and foreign influences to create and develop jade art with distinctive characteristics of the times. Because the texture of jade has always been valued in the national history of China, there is a saying that jade has five virtues, nine virtues and even eleven virtues. Although these statements come from Confucianism, they are actually people's intuitive feelings of observing jade, which are linked with social morality and become the spiritual pillar and traditional strength of jade development. In the Qianlong period, this tendency had a greater development, and large pieces of jade were ground into various simple and exquisite objects that could express the beauty of jade. This kind of jade with rich furnishings is not available in the previous generation, and it can't be said that it is the result of Manchu rulers and contemporary jade craftsmen fully carrying forward the traditional view of jade materials. In a word, the jade workers in the Qianlong period completed the important task of integrating historical heritage and bringing forth the new, polished a variety of excellent works, and made indelible contributions to the development of ancient jade in China.