Historical issues

In Shang dynasty, the use of iron had begun. /kloc-at the end of 0/972, an iron-edged bronze cymbal was unearthed at the Shang Dynasty site in Taixi, Gaocheng, Hebei Province. This weapon has an iron blade embedded in the front of the copper blade, which is proved to be forged iron by scientific appraisal. This kind of iron is not artificially smelted, but comes from meteorites (some meteorites that fall to the ground when meteorites explode are called meteorites with more iron or pure iron). Because artificial ironmaking was not known at that time, the use of meteorites had no practical significance in social production.

In recent years, an iron sword with a copper handle was unearthed in the Guo cemetery in Sanmenxia. Scholars believe that this is the earliest real iron discovered in China in the late Western Zhou Dynasty. The Western Regions Weekend and the Early Spring and Autumn Period Qin Xianggong (777-766 reigned) wrote a poem "Kong Xiangfu" in his poem "The Qin and Fengxiang", saying that the four horses he was driving were as black as iron and extremely fat. Using iron to describe the color of horses shows that iron has been used and is familiar to people. At that time, the iron was wrought iron, usually called "lump iron", which was obtained by reducing ore with charcoal at 800 ~ 1000℃, and it was a solid block containing a lot of impurities when it was discharged from the furnace. This kind of iron has several disadvantages: first, it can't flow out of the furnace after smelting once, and taking out the iron block will damage the furnace shaft, so it can't be produced continuously, with low productivity and small output. Second, it is necessary to forge repeatedly to make some objects with simple shapes. Third, the carbon content is very low and the texture is very soft. Due to the above disadvantages, this kind of iron can't be widely used. Judging from the ironware unearthed at present, China has invented pig iron smelting technology at the latest in the late Spring and Autumn Period. Pig iron is smelted at1150 ~1300℃, and it is liquid when discharged from the furnace. It can be continuously produced, cast and molded, with high carbon content and hard texture. This greatly improves the efficiency of melting and molding, as well as the output and quality of products. Therefore, from block ironmaking to pig iron is a leap in the history of ironmaking technology. It was not until14th century that raw iron was refined in Europe, which was later than that in China 1 900. An iron block unearthed from Chengqiao Bridge in Liuhe, Jiangsu Province in the late Spring and Autumn Period was scientifically analyzed as white pig iron. This is the earliest pig iron unearthed in China so far, and it is also the earliest pig iron in the world.

For the promotion of iron tools, according to written records, "Guoyu Qiyu" has the following contents: "US dollars are used to cast swords and halberds and try dogs and horses; Evil gold casting (chú, hoe). " "Yuan" refers to bronze and "evil gold" refers to iron, which is used for casting production tools. It can be seen that in the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period, the State of Qi had already used iron farm tools. In the twenty-ninth year of Zuo Zhuan (5 13 BC), it was recorded that the State of Jin cast an iron cauldron on which Fan's punishment book was cast. The iron cast in the tripod is a military tax levied on the people. It can be seen that there were also many folk ironware in Jin State at that time. It is not a simple matter to cast the book of torture on an iron tripod. Even if there are not many words in this punishment book, there should be some rules. The tripod will not be too small, nor will there be too little cast iron in the flowing state. Otherwise, the casting will not be successful. It can be seen that at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, the casting iron smelting technology in the Central Plains has been relatively mature.

Judging from the unearthed cultural relics, the unearthed ironware such as the tomb of Wu State in Chengqiao, Liuhe, Jiangsu, the Chu Tomb in Dedeshan, Changde, Hunan, and the Beixizhuang site in Houma, Shanxi are all relics of the late Spring and Autumn Period. There are iron blocks, iron bars, iron cutters, iron forks (qiāng, an ancient axe), shovels (bó, a farm tool for hoeing), iron, shovels, steel swords and so on. Some of these ironware are forged with wrought iron smelted in blocks, and some are cast with pig iron. According to underground excavation and literature records, iron farm tools have been widely used in the Spring and Autumn Period. At that time, some copper tools (such as copper hoes and shovels) and a large number of agricultural tools made of wood, stone, bone and mussels were still playing a certain role in the production field. Although the use of ironware in the Spring and Autumn Period was still in its early stage, it marked a new stage in the development level of agricultural productivity. As a new factor of productivity, ironware has created conditions for developing mountains, expanding cultivated land, developing water conservancy and transportation, and promoting social production. Since liberation, various and huge quantities of ironware in the middle of the Warring States period have been unearthed in the vast areas from Liaoning in the north, Guangdong in the south, Shandong Peninsula in the east and Sichuan in Shaanxi in the west. Fifty-eight pieces of iron farm tools, including plowshares and ploughshares, were unearthed from Wei Tomb in Huixian County, Henan Province. Hoes, hoes, sickles, axes, etc. Two of the "∨"-shaped plowshares, although there is no mirror turning device, can already play the role of breaking ground and ditching. The "Warring States Iron Farm Tools" in the textbook is the iron unearthed in Huixian County. The extensive use of iron farm tools dominates the use of wooden and stone farm tools. This is convenient for cutting down trees, building water conservancy projects, reclaiming wasteland, intensive cultivation and promoting the development of agricultural production.

Niu Geng

At first, a pedal cultivator called "Lei Lei" was used in the Central Plains. The helmsman holds Lei Lei's handle with his hand, puts his foot on the blade, pierces the blade into the soil and stirs it outward, thus digging out a piece of soil. Cultivated land is to dig up the soil piece by piece, and the cultivator needs to dig a piece and take a step back. This intermittent method of returning farmland to farmland requires a lot of force and the effect is not good. Legend has it that cattle were used to drive cars as early as Shang Dynasty. Some people think that Niu Geng existed in Shang Dynasty according to the hieroglyphics of Oracle Bone Inscriptions's "Plow", but this statement is not sufficient. In the Spring and Autumn Period, there is no doubt that Niu Geng has used it. In this way, the cultivated land will continue to advance, get twice the result with half the effort, and the effect is good, which is an important reform of farming technology. Niu Geng began in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period in the East. After Shang Yang's political reform, Qin came from behind and was widely used. At that time, horses were also used to cultivate land. In order to attach importance to agriculture, Shang Yang stipulated: "Those who steal horses die, and those who steal cattle add." It is said in Salt and Iron Theory that "the ancients" used horse-drawn carts when walking and "stopped farming". The "ancients" mentioned by the Han people refer to the Warring States and the Qin Dynasty. The combination of animal power and iron provides conditions for intensive cultivation.

Progress of agricultural technology and the rise of agricultural science

Agricultural technology made remarkable progress in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. In the words at that time, this farming technique was called "deep ploughing and easy ploughing", which required deep ploughing and quick hoeing. Irrigation methods, the Central Plains has generally used oranges for irrigation, rather than the original method of holding bottles for irrigation. During the Warring States Period, farmers knew about fertilization, and the word "fertile field" in Xunzi Guo Fu Chapter showed that farmers knew the importance of fertilization at that time. You not only know how to use animal manure, but also know how to use plant ash and green manure to cut weeds, burn them into ashes or irrigate them to rot, and use them as fertilizers to improve the soil. Paying attention to fertilizer accumulation is an important factor to improve agricultural output. Fertilization in Europe didn't start until 10 century and10 century, which was later than in China 1300 ~ 1400 years. During the Warring States period, attention was paid to the selection of fine varieties, that is to say, to increase grain output, it is necessary to choose fine varieties. People have begun to study soil, and advocate distinguishing soil properties first and choosing crops suitable for a certain soil to sow. The remarkable progress in agriculture during the Warring States Period initiated the fine tradition of intensive cultivation in China. At that time, people already knew to use manpower to change the status quo of soil. That is, cultivated land should be divided according to the hardness of the land. Hard land must be cultivated first, and soft land can be cultivated later. Pay attention to moisture conservation in high dry fields; Pay attention to the drainage of low humidity fields. In order to create excellent conditions for the growth of crops, ridges should be wide and flat, and ditches should be small and deep; Seedlings must be arranged vertically and horizontally to facilitate ventilation; In fertile land, seedlings should be kept dense, while in barren land, seedlings should be kept thin. If the seedlings on fertile land are sparse, the number of ineffective tillers will increase, and the seedlings on barren land will die because of insufficient water and fertilizer supply. These practices are in line with the principles of agricultural science. People at that time also understood the importance of farming time. Texaco wheat has good growth and development, strong plants, large ears, dark color, heavy seeds, less pests, high flour yield, delicious taste and good hunger tolerance. The "first time" wheat seedlings are born too early and are vulnerable to pests and diseases; "Late" wheat seedlings are fragile, with sparse ears and bad color. Therefore, it is emphasized that farming must be timely.

The increase of agricultural output during the Warring States period

Due to the extensive use of iron farm tools, the development of irrigation and the progress of agricultural technology, especially the improvement of farmers' enthusiasm for production, the output per unit area has increased. According to the estimation of agricultural output of Wei in the early years of Warring States, one acre of land can produce one stone and a half millet in general, which is equivalent to nine buckets per acre. According to Records of Historical Records Biography of Rivers and Channels, the land irrigated by water in Zheng Guoqu can get one clock per mu. A clock is six stones and four buckets, which is equivalent to three stones, eight buckets and four liters per mu. Under the production conditions in the late Warring States period more than 2000 years ago, the output was really high.

Dujiangyan irrigation system

From about 256 BC to 25 BC1year, Li Bing was appointed as the shoulder of Shu County by Zhao Haoqi, the king of Qin. The upper reaches of Minjiang River are high in mountains and deep in valleys, and the current is swift. When we reached Chengdu Plain, the speed of water suddenly slowed down, and the sediment and stones carried with it were deposited and silted. Every year, the water potential soars in summer and autumn, and the areas below guanxian (now Sichuan) are often flooded. After the rainy season, there will be drought again. In order to irrigate farmland and turn water disasters into water conservancy, Li Bing summed up the previous water conservancy experience, guided by the situation and relied on the local people to build Dujiangyan water conservancy project in Dujiangyan City, where the Minjiang River flows into the plain.

Dujiangyan water conservancy project consists of two parts: canal head and canal system. The headwork includes three main parts: Du Jiang Yuzui, Sha Fei Weir and Baokou. Du Jiang Yuzui is a water diversion project built in the middle reaches of Minjiang River. It divides the Minjiang River into two parts, the east is called Neijiang, which is used for irrigation canal water, and the west is called Waijiang, which is the main stream of the Minjiang River. On the south bank of Minjiang River near Dujiangyan City, the foot of Lei Yu Mountain was cut to form separate stone piles, that is, detached piles, and a narrow water inlet, that is, bottle mouth. The inland river flows into the cobweb-dense river system through the bottle mouth. There are "Doumen" at the big and small entrances. When water is needed, the bucket door can be opened, and when there is too much water, the bucket door can be closed. "Drought will make water seep, and rain will block the water gate" (Huayang National Records and Records). When the Minjiang River rose in summer, Dujiang River's fish mouth was flooded, leaving piles as the second water diversion site. In order to regulate the water quantity in Neijiang, a flying sand weir was built between Jingang levee and Lidui in Neijiang. When the flood surges, the water in Neijiang can overflow the flying sand weir and flow into the outer river to ensure the safety of the irrigation system in Neijiang. Dujiangyan water conservancy project is a comprehensive water conservancy project with irrigation as the main function and both flood control and traffic functions. It not only eased the flood disaster in Minjiang River, but also facilitated shipping, irrigated more than 3 million mu of farmland, and made Chengdu Plain a "land of abundance" (Huayang National Records). Dujiangyan has the advantages of proper site selection, reasonable project layout, strict and complete supporting facilities, local building materials and self-flow irrigation throughout the system, which has benefited the people for more than 2,200 years. Dujiangyan has more than 520 branch canals with a total length of about 1 100 km. Before liberation, the project was in disrepair, and the irrigation area was reduced to more than 2 million mu. After liberation, it was vigorously rectified and expanded, and now the irrigation area has expanded to more than 8 million mu. It is not only a pearl in the history of water conservancy in China, but also occupies an important position in the history of water conservancy in the world.

Development of handicraft industry

Before the Spring and Autumn Period, industry and commerce were mainly run by the government, the labor force was slaves, and there were few private businessmen. After the mid-Spring and Autumn Period, with the gradual establishment of private ownership of land and the emergence of feudal production relations, the industrial and commercial departments gradually broke away from the support of the government and developed in the direction of private operation, resulting in private handicrafts and independent individual craftsmen who mainly produced goods. They usually engage in production in their own homes, and some set up workshops and shops in urban markets. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Gong Boban, famous for his skills, was such an independent craftsman. Later, he was regarded as the father of a craftsman. At the same time, officials and businessmen can no longer monopolize trade, and the power of private businessmen is getting stronger and stronger. For example, Gao Xian, a big businessman of Zheng, heard that Qin's army was attacking Zheng on the way to sell cattle, so he claimed to be an envoy sent by Zheng, and presented 12 cows and four skins to reward Qin Jun. Because of his improvisation, Jiao Jun's orders made him think that Qin had informed Zheng of his military action, so he came prepared and cancelled the sneak attack. In addition, Fan Li, a doctor of Yue State, and Zi Gong, a disciple of Confucius, are both famous wealthy businessmen. Confucius traveled around the world, largely relying on Zigong's economic help. From the development of industry and commerce and the change of the status of industrialists and businessmen, we can see that in the field of industry and commerce, the control and bondage of slavery are gradually getting rid of, and the new factors of feudal relations are also growing day by day.

Iron smelting was the most important handicraft department at that time. Due to the accumulation of years of experience, people have already had a preliminary knowledge of mining. "Book of Guan Di Zi" said: "There is cinnabar on the top and gold on the bottom; If there is a magnet above, there is copper and gold below; There are lingshi above and lead, tin and copper below; There is ochre above and iron below. " Shan Hai Jing and Wu Zang Jing, written in the Warring States Period, recorded more than 30 iron mines with definite locations. The statistics of "3690 iron mines" in Shan Hai Zhong Jing Shan Jing and Several Articles of Guanzidi are inevitably exaggerated, but there are certainly many iron mines found at this time. Judging from the copper mine site of the Warring States period discovered in Tonglushan, Daye, Hubei Province, the shaft is more than 50 meters deep and used as a traffic tunnel. In order to excavate ore, the roadway extends horizontally. Kaiping roadway is opened layer by layer from the bottom of coal seam, and it is preliminarily sorted underground, and the waste roadway is filled with poor ore, gravel and soil to ensure that most of the ore is rich in ore. These indicate that the mining technology in the Warring States period has made great progress, and a series of complex technical problems such as underground ventilation, drainage, transportation, lifting, lighting and roadway support have been initially solved.

It was the invention of pig iron smelting technology that marked the economic breakthrough in the Spring and Autumn Period. The progress of ironmaking technology mainly lies in improving smelting furnace and raising furnace temperature, which is necessary to expand and improve blast equipment. "Wu Yue Chun Qiu" said that when He Lv, the king of Wu, made swords, he used "three hundred drums of charcoal for boys and girls" and then "gold and iron moistened, so he made swords". It shows that there were quite a few molds used in the smelting furnace at that time. During the Warring States period, iron smelting furnaces were blown by rows of rafts. There are hundreds of craftsmen in large smelters. Archaeologists have discovered six iron smelting workshops in the old city of Linzi, the largest of which covers an area of more than 400,000 square meters. Xia Yan, the capital of Yan State, is also an important iron smelting site. Three iron smelting workshops with a total area of 300,000 square meters were found in its ruins. All countries have iron smelting centers, the most famous of which is Wan of Chu State. The so-called "Wan Ju (steel) shovel (shο) is as miserable as a bee sting (chài, scorpion and other poisonous insects)" shows the excellent weapons made by Wan Ju. Handan of Zhao is an important place for iron smelting handicraft industry. Not only did Guo Zong, a native of Handan, make a fortune in iron smelting, but he was also a rich boy, a master of iron smelting handicraft industry in the early Western Han Dynasty. His ancestors were also from Zhao, who made a fortune by smelting iron.

Cast iron tools were widely used in the Warring States period, but the early cast iron was hard and brittle white iron, which was easily broken. At that time, the working people created a malleable cast iron with high hardness and good toughness by annealing the cast iron at high temperature in production practice. According to different heat treatment conditions, white malleable cast iron is mainly decarbonized; Graphitization is the main form of black core malleable cast iron. After the mid-Warring States period, iron was widely used, and the invention and development of malleable cast iron played an important role. The foreign white-core malleable cast iron was first invented by the French in 1722. Black-hearted malleable cast iron was invented by Americans in 1826. After a long time, people called white-hearted malleable cast iron "European malleable cast iron" and black-hearted malleable cast iron "American malleable cast iron". In fact, malleable cast iron was invented in China more than two thousand years before them.

During the Spring and Autumn Period, the sea salt cooking industry in Qi State and the salt cooking industry in Hedong Pool in Jin State were very prosperous. Hedong salt is regarded as a "national treasure". During the Warring States Period, the sea salt cooking industry in Qi Yan and Yan Guo was more developed, with more sea salt production and wide circulation. At the same time, Li Bing, who is punctual in Shu County, began to develop well salt in Sichuan.

Textile industry. At that time, sericulture was widely planted and silk products were produced in the rural areas of the Yellow River valley and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Among them, silk products produced in Qilu and other countries are more exquisite. Qi's needlework is famous for its textile technology, and the silk products produced are widely sold. The so-called "crowned with clothes" (Biography of Historical Records and Huo Zhi). At that time, the vassal States often used silk as prizes, as many as 5 thousand at a time. Hemp fabrics were more common than silk fabrics, which were the main materials and commodities of working people at that time. The fragments of linen unearthed in Changsha are denser than ordinary cotton cloth (there are 280 linen warp yarns per 10 cm and 240 weft yarns per 10 cm, and now there are 254 warp yarns and 248 weft yarns per 10 cm in cotton cloth), which shows that the linen weaving technology at that time was superb.

During the Spring and Autumn Period, lacquer craft was also attached to the wood industry. After the mid-Warring States period, it quickly developed into an independent handicraft department. In the early Warring States period, the wooden tire of lacquerware was still very thick, and the carved wood was often painted with colored paint. After the mid-Warring States period, wooden tires became light, with more than ten kinds of paint colors, such as black, red, yellow, purple, white and green, and various images and patterns were often painted on utensils with various colors of paint. Some household lacquerware also has a gold edge or a copper edge, which is called a gold-copper buckle. This shows the progress of lacquer craft.

Jingzhou Silk Patterns in Warring States Period

This picture shows the development of textile industry in Chu during the Warring States Period. Jingzhou was the capital of Chu at that time, and the newly unearthed silk patterns showed the superb performance of textile processing in Chu at that time.

Business and urban development

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, with the development of agriculture and handicrafts, the social division of labor became more and more detailed. Farmers want to "buy equipment with millet", handicraft workers want to "buy equipment with millet", and nobles and bureaucrats mainly exchange exploited agricultural and sideline products for luxury goods, all of which need to be exchanged through the market, so businesses and cities also prosper. This is a kind of commodity economy produced in the early feudal society, which does not play a decisive role in the whole economy. The local products of the quartet began to exchange in large quantities. Horses, camels, dates and chestnuts in the north, timber, minerals, birds and beasts, ivory, rhinoceros skins and feathers in the south, fish and salt fabrics in the east, leather, iron and pond salt in the west can all be bought in the Central Plains market. Due to the development of commodity exchange, the situation that merchants monopolize the market began to appear. Mencius said: "If you have a cheap husband, you must seek monopoly and board it, so that you look around and ignore the market." That is to say, in the market of the wasteland, some businessmen boarded the lofty hills (so-called monopoly), and they were far-sighted and looked around, trapping all the market interests. This is the origin of the word monopoly. As for a wealthy businessman like dajia, the main way to gain profits is to hoard and monopolize the market, such as Fan Li and Duanmu Ci.

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, due to the development of agriculture, handicrafts and commerce and the formation of autocratic centralization, politics, economy and culture were concentrated, so the city also developed. The increase of urban population, on the one hand, is due to the increase of the whole population, on the other hand, is due to the continuous concentration of rural population in cities. Zhao Ce San, the Warring States Policy, contains Zhao She's words: "The ancients were divided into nations within the four seas. Although the city is very big, it is not more than 300 feet; Although there are many people, there are not 3,000 people ... Now the city of thousands of feet stands opposite. " Among all the capital cities in the world, Linzi, the capital of Qi, is the largest. Archaeological data show that the old city of Linzi, the capital of Qidu, includes two cities, with the circumference of a big city of 14 and 158 meters, the circumference of a small town of 7275 meters, the total length of large and small cities of 2 1433 meters and the total length of 9500 feet. The population is 70,000.

Distribution map of handicraft industry and commercial cities during the Warring States period (figure)

This picture vividly reflects the distribution of major handicrafts and the geographical location of commercial cities during the Warring States period, which is convenient for students to remember.

Shang Yang (about 390-338 years ago)

Shang Yang is a clan alienated from the national monarch. His surname is Gongsun Yangming, also known as Wei Yang. Later, it was named Shang Yang in Qin Dynasty. Shang Yang was a courtier of Wei Xianggong's uncle CuO in his early years. When uncle CuO was seriously ill, he said to him, "Sun Yang is a young genius and can be appointed Prime Minister." King Hui was silent. Uncle CuO added, "Since the King doesn't need Sun Yang, kill him and don't let him leave the country." King Hui promised to leave. Uncle CuO called Shang Yang and said, King Hui asked who can be a photo, but I recommended you and didn't adopt it. I put you before the minister, and I have already suggested that you should not be reused or used by other countries. Now you should run away. Shang Yang said, "If King Hui doesn't value me according to your opinion, how can he kill me according to your opinion?" Shang Yang didn't escape. After Uncle Cuo's death, Shang Yang heard that he was ordered to look for a sage before going to Qin.

In 359 BC, when Shang Yang assisted Qin Xiaogong in brewing political reform, Gan Long and Du Zhi, representatives of the old aristocracy, rose up against the political reform. They think that profit is unchangeable and it is not easy to use. "There is nothing wrong with the ancient law, and there is nothing wrong with politeness." Shang Yang pointed out in a tit-for-tat way: "What was the ancient law in the past? If the emperor doesn't mend fences, why follow? " "Governing the world is different. At that time, the country was illegal, so Tang Wu was king without courtesy, and Yan Xia was not easy to die without courtesy. It is essential to resist the ancients, but there are not many people who follow the ceremony. " Therefore, he advocated "establishing the ceremony at that time and making the ceremony according to the matter" (Shang Jun Gengfa, Historical Records and Biography of Shang Jun). This refuted the so-called "legalist" and "etiquette" of the old aristocracy with the thought of historical evolution, and made public opinion preparations for the implementation of the reform. The illustration of "Shang Yang's war of words" in the textbook is a portrayal of this great debate at that time.

Shang Yang carried out two large-scale reforms from 356 BC to 350 BC. Shang Yang's first political reform took place in 356 BC, not in 359 BC. Yang Kuan's History of the Warring States (185) has such a passage: "Historical Records of Qin Benji says: Qin Xiaogong spent three years, and Wei Yang's filial piety was good for the public. Gan Long, Du Zhi and so on. However, they argue with each other, but they use the martingale method, and the people suffer. After living for three years, the people will be released, but they will worship as the elders of the left family. " On this basis, the martingale method was used for three years, and Wei Yang was promoted to be normal in six years because of "convenience". However, Biography of Historical Records of Shang Jun said: Filial piety' takes Wei Yang as the left daughter and sets the order of reform'. On this basis, the political reform was ordered, which should be after six-year-old Wei Yang was appointed as Chang. Compare the two and say yes later. "The Warring States Policy and Qin Ce" said: "Shang Jun ruled the State of Qin, and the laws were enforced ... after eighteen years of filial piety, he became ill and could not afford to support him. He wanted to preach to Shang Jun, but he refused to resign. "Everything is done by Han Feizi's Family" also said: "The law,' filial piety, respect for security, the country wants to be rich and strong, eight years later, the car is divided into Qin. "Wang Xianqian's" Xieji "thinks that it is right to remove the word" ten "from" eight ". From six years (that is, 356 BC) after Wei Yang's "life was prosperous" to Xiao Gong's death in the twenty-fourth year, the whole year was 19, which happened to be 18. Accordingly, Shang Yang's first political reform should be in 356 BC.