What are the main features of new officer training in foreign armies

Somewhat long, very detailed, in line with the requirements of your question.

From the United States, Russia, Japan, Britain, France, Germany, India and other countries The situation of the army to see, in the training of high-quality officers, its most distinctive points of practice are:

A, pay attention to the comprehensive quality of the officer's requirements, and constantly improve the level of professional knowledge and skills, in particular, the level of scientific and cultural level, the officer training for the all-round development of the "generalist" The foreign army that the quality of the officer is a comprehensive reflection of its ideology and morality, knowledge and skills, physical conditions and other factors. Foreign militaries believe that the quality of an officer is a comprehensive reflection of his ideology, moral character, knowledge and skills, and physical condition. The U.S. Army has proposed that "spiritual quality", "intellectual quality" and "operational quality" are the same requirements for all types of officers at all levels. Spiritual qualities refer to a correct ethical outlook and values, a spirit of fearlessness and sacrifice, and determination and confidence in completing tasks; intellectual qualities refer to having the technology, knowledge and skills needed to perform one's job; and operational qualities refer to the courage and skill to realize one's own determination and plans. The Russian army, while emphasizing other qualities of officers, pays special attention to improving their psychological qualities. According to the Japanese army, the qualities of an officer are "sense of responsibility", "ability to act", "ability to judge" and "ability to command and lead". From the recruitment, training, assessment, promotion and other management aspects of the officer, the foreign military generally attach importance to the officer's comprehensive quality requirements and cultivation of the Navy grass-roots political database, including the spiritual quality, knowledge quality and physical quality.

(A) spiritual quality

Spiritual quality is the world's armies on the officer's **** the same requirements, but also the main content of the foreign military spiritual education. Its content involves the officer's political tendency, ideological character, psychological quality and other aspects. Foreign armies have put forward clear political requirements for officers from their respective national and military conditions. The armies of all countries, without exception, treat the army as a tool for carrying out national policies, have a set of strict political standards in all aspects of officer management, and carry out political education throughout the entire military career of the officers. The requirements of foreign armies for officers in terms of political inclination are centered on the concept of the state or patriotism. MacArthur, a general of the U.S. army, summarized the spirit of American soldiers into six words: "duty, honor, country". The United States Code clearly stipulates that the functions of the United States military are: "to maintain peace and security, and to defend the nation, its territory, and all its citizens"; "to guarantee the implementation of national policy"; "to achieve national objectives"; and "to prevail against any nation responsible for aggression that endangers the peace and security of the United States". The U.S. military states that patriotism means "loyalty to the national interest," "putting the national interest first," and "subordinating the individual to the nation. In the military oath, the United States Army requires officers and soldiers to "uphold and defend the Constitution of the United States" and to "submit to all trials of valor in defense of the traditions and liberties of the United States of America, which are precious and unparalleled". Since its establishment in 1992, the Russian army has undergone a major reform of the content and structure of its ideological education. Currently, education in the concept of the State is one of the main elements of the ideological education of the Russian army. In the military oath, the Russian army requires soldiers to "faithfully perform their military duties, courageously defend the freedom, independence and constitutional system of Russia, and defend the people and the motherland". The Japanese army made "sense of mission" one of the basic requirements for officers and put "mission education" at the top of the list of spiritual education. The Japanese army believed that its mission was to "defend the independence of the country" and that the army must obey the "principles of democratic politics", and that the spiritual foundation of the soldiers was "love of the people, the nation and the motherland". Ideological character is a common requirement for officers in foreign armies, and is specifically embodied in various military regulations and documents. For example, the U.S. military believes that the ideological virtues of officers are embodied in several aspects, such as code of conduct, military tradition, values and personal image. In the military oath, the U.S. Army stipulates the code of conduct that military personnel should abide by during wartime, such as not being afraid of sacrifice, not surrendering to the enemy voluntarily, not betraying one's fellow soldiers, not informing the enemy, and so on. The orders and regulations of the U.S. military branches set out specific standards for the behavior of officers at all levels, such as the U.S. Army's "Senior Leadership and Command" order, which sets out 11 "leadership guidelines" for senior officers. Traditional education is one of the contents of spiritual education in the U.S. Army. The U.S. Army's "Officer's Guide "*** lists 12 traditions, including serving the country, completing the mission, improving the level of leadership, loyalty, being true to one's word, strict discipline, constant readiness, caring for the soldiers, unity and cooperation, maintaining a lady's and gentleman's demeanor, not engaging in politics, and making frank statements, etc. The U.S. Army attaches great importance to the values of military personnel. The U.S. Army attaches great importance to educating soldiers on values and designated 1986 as the "Year of Military Values".

(2) Quality of Knowledge

The development of modern science and technology and the improvement of army modernization have increased the scientific and technological content of the army, accelerated the updating speed of military theories, equipments and technologies, and also increased the complexity and difficulty of army construction and combat, thus putting forward higher requirements on the professional knowledge and skills of the officers, especially on the level of scientific and technological culture. In order to meet this requirement, foreign armies emphasize on taking various measures to improve the education level of officers and build a highly educated officer team. At present, in the armies of western developed countries such as the United States, officers have reached the level of university or college education. The U.S. Army's basic requirement for officers' education is a bachelor's degree, and more than 95 percent of its active-duty officers meet this requirement, with 37.7 percent of them holding master's degrees, doctorates and other advanced degrees or multiple degrees. Officers of the Russian and other armies are also well educated. Officers with higher education in the Russian army account for about 80% of the total number of officers, of which all officers above division level and 90% above regiment level have higher education. In the Israeli army, officers are mainly promoted from among the best soldiers, but during their service, they have to receive formal training and eventually reach a university degree. In the case of the U.S. Army, the key to ensuring that officers have a college education or higher is to ensure that they come from a good source. For example, new officers trained by the U.S. Army's Regular Officers' School and Reserve Officers' Training Corps all have a four-year college degree. In addition to graduates of local universities, some of the cadets recruited by the Alternate Officers' School are also active-duty soldiers, but active-duty soldiers must first study at a local university for two years and reach a certain level of education before they can become regular cadets. Officers directly selected from local universities are mainly professional and technical officers needed by the army, and generally have received formal professional education. On this basis, to further improve the educational level of officers, it mainly relies on encouraging officers to continue their education and study for higher degrees or second specialties. For example, the U.S. Army requires commanding officers to learn and master a technical specialty or management specialty while being proficient in the command specialty. Therefore, many officers above the rank of major in the U.S. Army have multiple degrees. A feature of foreign military officer training is that it emphasizes "generalist education". In a narrow sense, generalist education refers to the fact that military colleges and universities focus their teaching on scientific, technological and cultural courses of a general nature when training new officers. In this regard, the armies of the United States, Russia, Japan and other countries have basically adopted the same approach, emphasizing the teaching of basic theories. For example, cadets at the United States Military Academy at West Point are not divided into military specialties, and they are given a unified course of study in the arts and sciences, with basic theory courses accounting for more than 70 per cent of the total instructional time. The basic theory courses account for more than 70% of the total teaching time. In the curriculum of the arts and sciences courses, emphasis is placed on the science and technology courses. Therefore, it is said in the U.S. military that "there is no specialty at West Point". Since the military specialty courses were not the focus of instruction, cadets were required to undergo 3-4 months of "post training" at their respective service specialty schools before they were formally commissioned. In the Japanese army, the proportion of cultural courses in the overall curriculum for training new officers is also increasing, with more than 60% of the courses at its defense universities. In recent years, the reform of education in Russian military academies has been moving toward the practices of the militaries of developed Western countries such as the United States. The new Regulations on Higher Military Institutions of the Russian Ministry of Defence indicate that higher military education in the Russian army will gradually be brought into line with local higher education, with emphasis on teaching in accordance with unified State educational standards. In accordance with the new curricula and teaching plans, the Russian army will focus on strengthening the humanistic and scientific education of officers and reducing the amount of time spent on instruction in the same military subjects.*** The Russian army is also working to increase the level of education of officers and to improve their scientific and technical skills. In addition to raising the level of education, science and culture among officers, foreign armies are also emphasizing the improvement of their military expertise and skills. The armies of many countries have adopted the practice of training before use, re-training before use, and consistency between training and use, so that officers are repeatedly trained, level by level, so as to equip them with the abilities needed to perform their corresponding duties and to adapt to the constant updating of military knowledge and technology. Generally speaking, an officer who does not complete the required training will have no opportunity for promotion. In their career development, technical officers and commanding officers are usually required to attend junior, intermediate and senior technical or commanding institutions, or to complete the corresponding courses through self-study or correspondence instruction. Take the United States Army as an example, the career development of its officers is divided into five stages, namely, the second lieutenant and lieutenant stage, the captain stage, the major stage, the lieutenant colonel stage and the colonel stage, and officers at each stage have to go to the corresponding military academy for training or to complete the corresponding courses by other means before they can have the opportunity to move on to the next stage. The first two stages are roughly equivalent to primary training, which takes place in the Army's service academies; the third stage is roughly equivalent to intermediate training, which takes place in the Army's or other services' command and staff colleges; and the fourth and fifth stages are roughly equivalent to advanced training, which takes place in the Army's or other services' military colleges.

(C) Physical fitness

The United States and other armies are of the view that the stressful life of the military and the heavy military tasks require that officers at all levels, including middle and senior officers, must have good physical fitness in order to adapt to the needs of the various military positions, environments and activities in peacetime and wartime. The development of science and technology and their application to the military have increased the degree of modernization of the military, while at the same time increasing the difficulty of military training and combat, thus increasing rather than reducing the physical requirements for officers. As the size of the army continues to shrink and military tasks become more demanding, officers must be physically fit in order to cope with the ever-increasing workload. One of the main practices of foreign militaries in improving the physical fitness of officers is to emphasize the strengthening of officers' physical fitness. To this end, junior military colleges of foreign armies require strict physical examinations and fitness tests for candidates during enrollment; for example, the United States Army requires 18 items in its physical examination program. In the training of new officers, physical training is one of the main courses; for example, physical training at the United States Military Academy at West Point accounts for about 10 per cent of the entire curriculum. Physical fitness is one of the elements in the examination and appraisal of officers, and it is also a criterion to measure whether an officer will be promoted or continue to serve in the army. For example, the U.S. Army uses physical fitness as one of the criteria for evaluating the personal qualities of officers in officer evaluations and appraisals. Its sports test standards are grouped by gender and age, and stipulate the standards for basic tests such as push-ups, sit-ups, and long-distance running. Officers who fail to meet the physical fitness standards three times in a row are discharged from the military. Weight standards are set for officers based on gender, age, and height. Officers who exceed the weight standard are given six months to lose weight or they will not be promoted. The armies of Russia and other countries have similar requirements and regulations for the physical fitness of officers; for example, the Russian army requires officers under the age of 30 to meet the standards of nationally ranked athletes or the standards set by the military hierarchy. The age of officers is closely related to their physical fitness, so another way for foreign armies to improve the physical fitness of officers is to improve the age structure of officers. The armies of the United States and other countries have clearly defined the maximum age and years of service for officers. For example, the U.S. Army stipulates that the maximum service age for general officers is 62 years, and the length of service in rank is five years. If a general officer reaches the age of 62 or has served five years in his original rank and has not been promoted, he must retire from the military, and if he needs to remain in office due to special circumstances, he must be approved by the president and passed by Congress. Generally speaking, rejuvenation is the development trend of the age of military officers in the United States and other countries, and the United States Army had basically achieved this goal by the end of the 1970s. According to statistics, the average age of officers of all ranks in the U.S. Army is 22 years old for second lieutenants, 24 years old for lieutenants, 26 years old for captains, 32 years old for majors, 38 years old for lieutenant colonels, 44 years old for colonels, 46 years old for brigadier generals, 50 years old for major generals, 55 years old for lieutenant generals, and 60 years old for admirals. As of June 30, 1996, the total number of active officers in the U.S. Army was 231,736, with the following age structure: 8.5% of the officers under 25 years old, 24% of the officers between 26-30 years old, 23.5% of the officers between 31-35 years old, 20% of the officers between 36-40 years old, 14.5% of the officers between 41-45 years old, 7% of the officers between 46-50 years old and 2% of the officers over 50 years old. Officers over 50 years old accounted for about 2%.

Two, widely open up the source of officers and training methods, especially for the community to select officers, relying on the community to train officers, and appropriately improve the degree of socialization of officer training

(a) widely open up the source of officers, from the army and the community to recruit talented people to establish a high-quality officer corps, the first step is to open up a wide range of sources of officers, the military and the local without restraint to absorb the best talent. The first step in building a high-quality officer corps is to open up a wide range of sources of officers and to draw on both military and local talents without discrimination. At present, there are three main ways to produce new officers for foreign armies. The first is independent training by military academies. All armies in the world have regular military academies for training new officers, such as the officer schools of the U.S. Army, the secondary and higher military academies of the Russian Army, and the defense universities of the Japanese Army. Their enrolment targets are mainly local high school graduates and some active-duty soldiers, and the course of study lasts 4 to 5 years. In addition, the armies of the U.S. and Japan have officer candidate schools, such as the U.S. Army's Officer Candidate School and the Japanese Army's Cadre Candidate School, etc. Their enrollment targets are mainly local college graduates and some active-duty soldiers. The enrollment targets are mainly graduates of local universities and active-duty soldiers with two years or more of university education, and the duration of the course is shorter, 22 weeks in the U.S. Army and one year in the Japanese Army. The second way is the joint training of officers by the army and local universities, which is a distinctive feature of foreign armies in training new officers. The U.S. Army has set up reserve officer training corps in more than 1,400 local universities and colleges, subsidizing university students to participate in military training and requiring them to serve in the army after graduation. The Russian army set up military departments in some local universities and recruited graduates from local universities or military colleges to train officers specializing in medicine, finance and music for the army. The Japanese army provided loans to undergraduate and graduate students of local universities, and after graduation sent them to cadre candidate schools for short-term training to train officers specializing in science, technology, and medicine for the army. The third method is the direct selection of officers from among local and military personnel, which is the main form of replenishment of officers in the Israeli army, and is the same practice in the armies of the United States, Japan, Great Britain, France and other countries. The targets of local selection are mainly those with professional and technical training, such as doctors, lawyers, priests, etc., while the targets of selection from the army are mainly outstanding soldiers and warrant officers. Local recruits are generally required to undergo a short period of military training before being commissioned as officers. With the exception of Israel, the armies of most countries do not normally promote officers directly from among serving soldiers. In addition, the U.S. and other militaries may call up reserve and retired officers for active duty, which is an important means of replenishing the U.S. military in the early stages of a war. Independent training in military academies is the main source of officers for the U.S. and Russian armies. The source of students in military academies is not only related to the quality of new officers, but also to the development of officers after they take office, thus affecting the overall quality of the officer corps. In the United States and other developed countries in the West, the source of military academies is relatively sufficient and stable, the ratio of the number of applicants to the number of admissions is generally more than 10:1.

(2) Broadening the ways for officers to pursue further education, creating better conditions and more opportunities for officers' growth and progress

Based on the emphasis on the selection and training of new officers, foreign militaries have set up a relatively perfect system of further education for officers and a system that allows officers to have the opportunities and conditions for continuous growth and progress after their appointment to raise their own military professional capabilities and scientific and technological cultural level, and thus ensure that officers at all levels have a high quality of qualifications. This ensures that officers at all levels are of high quality. One of the outstanding features of further training for officers in foreign armies is that there are many channels and avenues for training, as well as active methods and approaches. To summarize, the main forms of further training for officers include institutional training and post training, each of which takes a flexible and diverse approach. Institutional training is the main way for officers in the United States, Russia and other countries to further their education. According to statistics, for every 2,000 officers in the armies of these countries, there is a military academy, but these are mainly specialized schools for the various branches of the armed forces; for example, such schools in the United States army account for more than 90 per cent of the total number of academies. The advanced training of foreign military officers is usually divided into several levels: junior, middle and senior. Elementary education is mainly for officers below the battalion level or at the rank of lieutenant, and is conducted in the service academies or junior colleges. Intermediate advanced training is mainly for officers above battalion or major level, and is conducted at military service academies or intermediate institutions. Advanced studies are primarily for officers above regiment or lieutenant colonel level, and are conducted at service or military-wide senior institutions. At the intermediate and advanced levels, officers may pursue further studies across services or even countries, that is, they may receive training at institutions of other services or foreign militaries. In order to enhance the joint warfighting capability of middle- and senior-level officers, the United States Army has explicitly stipulated in the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1996 that an officer can be promoted to the rank of Brigadier General or above only if he has received training in the joint services and served as an officer in a joint capacity. To this end, the United States Army has developed the Joint Professional Military Education (JPME) program, which divides joint service training for officers into two phases, the first of which is conducted at the intermediate and senior colleges of each service, and the second at the Armed Forces Staff College at the National Defense University. In addition, sending officers to local colleges and research institutes to study for a degree, receive short-term training, or engage in guest research is an important way for foreign military officers to further their education in colleges and universities. Post training refers to all activities of a training nature carried out by officers at their posts, and mainly includes military exercises and on-the-job education. Military exercises have a strong practical nature, is to exercise and improve the officer's ability to work effectively, can be divided into two kinds of practical exercises and no practical exercises.

(3) Selecting Officers for Society, Training Officers on the Basis of Society, and Appropriately Increasing the Degree of Socialization in Officer Training

From the above information on the sources and further education of officers in the foreign armies, we can see that one of the distinctive features of the replenishment and training of officers in the foreign armies is to make full use of the manpower and material resources of the society in order to deliver and create high-quality officers for the armies. In comparison, the United States Army's practice in this regard is particularly outstanding. Of the more than 170,000 new officers appointed in 1995, about 31 percent were trained in military academies, 37 percent in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps, and 32 percent by direct appointment. In practice, only about 60 per cent of the officers trained in military academies are four-year graduates of the three military officer schools, while the remaining 40 per cent are graduates of the officer candidate schools. The remaining 40 per cent are graduates of the Alternate Officers' School, and most of the cadets enrolled in the Alternate Officers' School are graduates of local universities, so in practice only about 16 per cent of the new officers are graduates of the four-year course, which is entirely independent of the military academies. The vast majority of directly appointed officers are also local personnel, mainly lawyers, clergymen, doctors and other professionals, who have received only a short period of military training prior to their appointment. In terms of post-commissioning education, U.S. military academies also have limited training capacity, which is concentrated in the service's junior colleges. Only 50 percent of major officers are able to enter intermediate service academies, and 15 to 20 percent of lieutenant colonels are able to enter senior service academies. Other officers rely on other means of training, such as correspondence courses and self-study, including enrollment in local universities and research institutes or guest studies. The biographies of U.S. military officers show that the vast majority of mid- and senior-level officers have worked at local universities, research institutes, government departments, and private businesses, pursued degrees or second specialties, conducted guest research, and received short-term training.15 In March 1998, the Russian Ministry of Defense adopted a "Plan for the Reform of the Russian Military Institutions up to the Year 2000," which proposes to carry out the third largest reform of military institutions since the second half of the 19th century.16 In addition, the Russian Ministry of Defense has adopted a "Plan for the Reform of the Russian Military Institutions up to the Year 2000. The Program for the Reform of the Russian Military Academy by the Year 2000 One of the elements of the program is a reform of the officer training system, the main measures of which are to rely more on social forces to alleviate the problem of insufficient sources of officers, such as wider participation of local institutions in the training of new officers, the inclusion of local personnel with advanced education as contract officers, and the enlistment of graduates of local universities who have undergone military training in the military departments of the local universities as officers. In short, the direct selection of professional and technical officers from local areas, the joint training of new officers with local universities, the use of military short-training schools to train graduates of local universities to become officers, the sending of active-duty soldiers to local universities for cultural training before they enroll in military academies, the selection of officers to study or work in local departments, the encouragement of officers to participate in the correspondence courses of local universities, and the invitation of local universities to hold courses at the military posts have become the practice of the armies of many countries such as the United States of America*****. It has become the practice of the United States and many other countries' armies to do the same thing. This can be done by using the human and material resources of society for the military service, saving officer training funds, to make up for the lack of military academy training force, reduce the number of military academies, expanding the source of military officers and training avenues to broaden the horizons of the officers and the knowledge of the officers to provide officers with more opportunities to learn and exercise, thus contributing to the improvement of the quality of the officer corps.

Third, the implementation of open and fair officer assessment, promotion and rotation system, to create an environment and conditions conducive to maintaining and improving the quality of the officers

(a) comprehensive, fair and scientific assessment of the officers, for the officer's training, use, promotion and elimination of the objective and accurate basis

The foreign armies that the establishment and maintenance of a high-quality officers is a system involving a number of factors and aspects

The foreign armies that the establishment and maintenance of a high-quality officers is a system involving a number of factors and aspects. A systematic project involving many factors and links, but also a dynamic process of constant change and development. Therefore, in the construction of the officer corps, it is necessary not only to improve the measures aimed at directly improving the quality of officers, such as the source of officers and further education, but also to improve the supporting system of the use and promotion of officers; it is necessary not only to promote and reuse outstanding officers, but also to eliminate and remove officers of poor quality or unqualified officers. A comprehensive, fair and scientific assessment of officers can not only urge officers to continuously improve their own quality, but also provide an objective and accurate basis for improving the training, utilization, promotion and elimination of officers. U.S., Japan and other Western developed countries, the army officer assessment of the **** the same characteristics, one is the assessment of the content of a comprehensive, detailed, usually including ideological character, work performance, personal qualities of dozens of content. For example, the Japanese Ground Self-Defense Force (GSDF) has defined the assessment contents and standards for officers at all levels in five areas, namely, "quality", "work performance", "attendance", "health", and "character traits", etc. Secondly, the assessment procedures are fair and reasonable. Secondly, the assessment procedures are fair and reasonable, usually including self-assessment by the examinee, assessment by the assessment officer, review by the adjusting officer, examination by the auditing officer, and appeal by the examinee. For example, in the assessment of Japanese military officers, there are an assessor, an adjusting officer and a reviewing officer; the assessor assesses the examinee according to the assessment items and standards; the adjusting officer reviews the assessor's assessment; and the reviewing officer is responsible for reviewing the assessor's and adjusting officer's assessment and review. Thirdly, the assessment method is scientific and combines qualitative and quantitative analysis. For example, the Japanese Army requires that the assessment be quantified and that the results of the comprehensive assessment be divided into five grades, and there are proportional limits on the number of officers of the same rank who are awarded the first and second grades, which are limited to 10% and 40%, respectively. For items that are not easy to quantify, such as "character traits", qualitative assessment should be made, such as distinguishing character traits into six types, including "commander type", "staff type", "adjutant type", "instructor type", "scholar type" and "other type". Career quality mainly assesses an officer's "professional ability" and "professional ethics", of which professional ability consists of 14 items and professional ethics consists of 8 items; fulfillment of duties is mainly based on the objectives of the officer at the beginning of the assessment period, and the officer's overall performance of his duties during the period of assessment is examined; and the potential for development is mainly an assessment of what kind of work the officer is suited for and whether he is competent to take up the higher level of duties. The appraisal process involves the establishment of an appraisal officer, who is usually the direct superior of the appraisee, and a senior appraisal officer, whose rank is generally two ranks higher than that of the appraisee. Within 30 days of the start of the appraisal period, the appraisal officer will talk to the appraisee and clarify his/her objectives in person. At the end of the appraisal period, the appraisee fills in the "Officer's Appraisal Report Schedule" with his/her performance and physical condition during the year and submits it to the appraisal officer. Based on the information available to the officer and the information provided by the appraisee, the appraising officer will fill in the "Officer's Appraisal Report Form" to appraise the appraisee's professionalism and performance of duties, and submit the Appraisal Report Form and the Appraisal Report Schedule to the Senior Appraising Officer. The senior appraising officer reviews the appraisal and comments on the appraisee's potential for promotion. Upon completion of the appraisal, the appraisee has the right to review his/her appraisal report form and to appeal to the Service Department. The appraisal method is a combination of qualitative and quantitative assessment. The appraisal officer shall classify the appraisee's professional ability into five grades one by one; write comments on his/her professional moral character; and differentiate his/her performance of duties into five grades, such as "consistently exceeds the requirements", "usually exceeds the requirements", "meets the requirements", "sometimes fails to meet the requirements", "usually fails to meet the requirements", etc., and write comments on these grades. The Senior Examiner will grade the appraisee's potential for promotion as "promoted earlier than his contemporaries", "promoted with his contemporaries", "unable to be promoted", "other", etc., and will write comments.

(2) Establishing a fair and reasonable officer promotion system, creating an environment of fair competition and equal opportunity, ensuring that outstanding officers are promoted to important positions, and retaining the talents needed by the Army

The foreign armies believe that a sound officer promotion system should serve the purpose of attracting, motivating, and retaining outstanding officers while eliminating unqualified officers. The U.S. Army has stated that the goals of its officer promotion system are: to provide career development opportunities and to absorb officers with potential into the officer corps; to retain officers with potential, including those who have a skill; to promote the best officers to important positions based on their merit; to provide equal promotion opportunities for all types of officers; and to eliminate unqualified officers. It can be seen that the officer promotion system is closely related to the maintenance and improvement of the quality of the officer corps. It is precisely for this purpose that foreign militaries are constantly improving their officer systems. In order to attract outstanding military leaders to serve in the army for a long period of time, the armies of the United States and other countries pay attention to the provision of stable promotion opportunities for officers. The British and other militaries have slightly fewer opportunities for promotion than the U.S. military, but most lieutenants and colonels are promoted to the next higher rank. In recent years, the U.S. Army, in the face of severe troop reductions, has paid special attention to maintaining a steady rate of officer promotions, limiting the decline to less than 5 percent. In order to ensure the quality of promoted officers, the armies of the United States and other countries have set clear limits on the proportion of officers of all ranks, especially senior officers, and made strict provisions on the conditions for promotion. For example, the ratio of general officers to the total number of general officers in the United States Army is 50 per cent for brigadier generals, 35 per cent for major generals, 11.5 per cent for lieutenant generals and 3.7 per cent for admirals. In the promotion of officers, the U.S. and other armies have strict requirements in terms of education, training, experience and years of service. Taking years of service as an example, the U.S. Army stipulates that the minimum age of a second lieutenant to be promoted to second lieutenant is 1.5 years, that of a second lieutenant to be promoted to captain is 2 years, that of a captain to be promoted to major, major to be promoted to lieutenant colonel, and lieutenant colonel to be promoted to colonel are all 3 years. This is only the minimum requirement for promotion. In fact, officers of all ranks have served for a longer period of time before promotion. In the United States Army, the actual length of service for promotion from captain to major and from major to lieutenant colonel is as long as seven years. In this sense, the speed of promotion of officers is not fast. Stringent requirements for the promotion of officers will enable officers to accumulate sufficient knowledge, skills, experience and exposure to the qualities required for the next level of duty. In order to ensure that the best officers are promoted to important posts and to stimulate their motivation, the armies of the United States and other countries pay attention to creating an environment and conditions of fair competition and equal opportunity for officers in their promotion systems. Merit promotion is the same practice in many national armies, i.e., on the basis of a comprehensive measurement of the officers' moral character, education, qualifications, abilities and actual performance, officers with better conditions are promoted on a priority basis. In order to maintain the youthfulness and high quality of the officer corps, foreign militaries generally stipulate the maximum number of selections, years of service and age of officers at all levels, so as to eliminate officers who are older or of lower quality. For example, according to the promotion and retirement system of the United States Army, second lieutenants and lieutenants have one and two selection opportunities respectively, and those who fail to be selected must retire. Captains and majors have two selections, and those who fail must retire, except for a few who may remain in the service; the maximum length of service is 20 years for captains and 24 years for majors. Lieutenant-colonels have two opportunities for selection and must retire after 28 years of service, with the exception of a few who may be retained in their posts. All officers must retire when they reach the age of 62.

(3) The implementation of officer rotation system, expanding the knowledge of officers, increase the officer's experience

Officer rotation system is one of the characteristics of the foreign military officer management system, which includes the officer's post changes between home and abroad, between the unit and the authorities, between the instruction of the exploration profession and the service profession, between the military services, between the military service, and between the military services, and so on. The United States Army began to implement the officer rotation system as early as in the last century and has been adhering to this practice ever since. Officers generally serve in the same post for no more than four years, with a maximum of six years. Those who have served for less than eight years may be transferred within their branch of service, while those who have served for more than eight years may be transferred within their military branch. For example, General Schwarzkopf, former Commander of the United States Central Headquarters, changed his post more than 20 times during his more than 40 years of military service. In the British Army, officers change their posts more frequently and generally serve in the same post for no more than two years, with a maximum of three years. In the armies of Germany, France and Japan, officers have served in the same post for an average of only one year. In addition, the armies of the United States and other countries also implement a system of officer rotation during wartime. For example, in the Korean War, the Vietnam War and the Gulf War, the U.S. Army has adopted such forms as the rotation of individual officers and soldiers or the rotation of troops as a whole. Officer job rotation system to improve the quality of officers have many benefits, such as broadening their horizons, expanding their knowledge, increase their experience, exercise their ability and so on.