Summarize the three stages of the development of modern European humanism.

With Florence as the center. Latin is * * * Enjoy writing.

Generally speaking, western thoughts are divided into three different modes to look at people and the universe. The first mode is to transcend nature and focus on God, who is a part of God's creation. The second model is nature, focusing on nature, that is, the scientific model, and man is a part of the natural order; The third mode is humanistic mode, which is people-oriented, and takes human experience as the starting point for people to know themselves, God and nature.

This distinction is only a distinction between three tendencies that can be combined in many ways, and there is no strict boundary, not to mention another copy of Comte's three-stage law: the humanistic model transcends the theological model, the scientific model and the humanistic model, because these three models are all represented one after another and continue to exert influence, and their relationship swings between competing claims of monopoly truth and different forms of existence.

The most attractive thing about ancient Greek thought is that people are the center, not the god. Humanism sharply criticized scholasticism, because they focused on logical categories and metaphysical issues, and their abstract thinking and logical reasoning were divorced from people's daily life. However, humanism in the Renaissance did not want to replace scholasticism with another philosophical thought, but only wanted to revive the neglected role of scholasticism.

The favorite topic of humanistic discussion is active life or thoughtful life, which is better? Meditation no longer occupies the most important position as it did in the Middle Ages.

The second topic is the impermanence of fate and the spirit of refusing to yield to fate. This determination to conquer fate has aroused people's interest in people's personality and self-awareness, so the number of portraits, self-portraits, biographies and autobiographies is increasing, and it is in a realistic style rather than a symbolic or figurative style.

We can't avoid the conflict between Augustine's evil existence and his view of man in the Renaissance. Most Renaissance people were not bothered by this conflict and continued to take Christianity for granted.

As for a few people who are confused, we can take two paths: neo-Platonism and biblical humanism, which represent the religious factors in Renaissance humanism in different ways.

Neo-Platonism holds that harmony and symmetry are the fundamental principles of the universe, and people can achieve consistency with these two principles through meditation, which is the highest activity of human beings. This belief is very attractive to Renaissance thinkers. In the hierarchical level of the universe, man is the center of creation, and the connection with everything that has been created belongs to the lower level of matter, but he can still improve himself to communicate with God.

It is easy to change from neo-Platonism to mysticism, so the Renaissance was fascinated by magic and astrology, and was interested in Pythagoras' digital symbolism, myths and fables, which had a far-reaching influence on European literature and art. 。

Biblical humanism refers to the application of humanistic research methods to the study of biblical texts and works of church elders. For them, although the Renaissance was people-centered, its religiosity was not necessarily weak. Biblical humanism is dominant in northern Europe, so northern Europe has become one of the most important sources of the religious reform movement. Many Christian humanists began to have the purpose of reforming the church. They think they are proficient in classical studies and apply them to the Bible. This is the key to restoring the true nature of Christian doctrine. Moreover, Luther's insistence on the intermediate role of the priest and the direct communication between the individual and God can be regarded as the natural development of humanism, just as he insisted on translating the Bible into the local languages of various countries.

In Germanic territory, Luther was very attractive to the new national feelings, but outside Germanic, other Christian humanists had to clear at least two obstacles to follow him: 1. Luther became more and more extreme in giving up the church tradition and belief, and finally left the church. This will eventually be completely incompatible with humanitarianism.

Buckhart famously said that the Renaissance was to discover the world and people and return to nature, and the ancients were imitators of all the sights that could be seen.

They describe concrete and universal things and combine universal truth with concrete experience.

After 1527, Rome was robbed, Naples and Florence were besieged, followed by famine and plague. The last remaining Italian Republic is Venice, which survived because it is good at adapting to the changes of the times.

When Brezel painted Victory of Death, the early humanists' confidence in human dignity and creativity turned into a satire on the actual situation. This irony will reappear in the 18 and 19 centuries after the collapse of the 20th century. If you want to stick to your faith in this disillusionment, you'll have to be content with tragedy. This is the reason behind Shakespeare's tragedy. Shakespeare no longer believes that courage and virtue can control fate and what people can do.

The failure of civic spirit in the Republic of China also led to Machiavelli's On Kings: do whatever it takes to achieve the goal.

They don't look at people like the new Polat: like a god, or Michelangelo: like a hero. Nevertheless, people are still in the center.

During the religious war, both Protestant reform and Catholic anti-reform began to suppress people's spiritual freedom and no longer emphasized life in this life.

Renaissance humanism belongs to individualism in essence, so as a historical force, it has obvious weaknesses, and this weakness is even more obvious when some people organize to suppress it as heresy or false fantasy. However, the thought it represents, its central position in human experience and value, and its insistence on human dignity are all too powerful. Once they are restored and put forward again, they will become too powerful.

Second, the age of enlightenment

A loose, informal and completely unorganized alliance composed of cultural critics, religious skeptics and political reformers with Paris as the center and French as the language.

Before the Enlightenment, Copernicus, Galileo and Bacon all explored and sailed.

The religious war began to separate all thoughts from theology. Descartes, Spinoza and Hobbes put the foundation of moral society on self-preservation, which can best see the anxiety caused by the English Civil War.

/kloc-in the 0/8th century, when the Enlightenment began, people began to walk out of the skepticism of the religious war, and their optimism was based on experimental science. Bacon predicted this in17th century, and he died in 1626. As a result, Newton was born. Newton was born in 1642 and died in 1727. Nature began to move away from mystery and become knowable.

The most influential thing of the Enlightenment is to use the influence of natural science to make liberal arts break away from mysterious religious revelation.

Locke: The government is a contractual relationship, and trust can be recovered. Therefore, Locke defended the English revolution. Locke opposes Descartes' view that human thoughts come from nature. He thinks that thoughts come from our sensory impressions. He discovered the scientific laws of human mind, just as Newton discovered the scientific laws of nature.

Newton and Locke were both British, and they exerted great influence in the first stage of the Enlightenment, which was the result of Britain enjoying freedom earlier.

In the Enlightenment, Descartes' rationalism was attacked. When they talk about reason, they are all talking about the critical and destructive use of intelligence, not its ability to build logical systems. They are empiricists.

Therefore, the Enlightenment and Renaissance humanism are continuous, not identical. Their solutions are different. During the Renaissance, classical thoughts and philosophy can still be combined with Christian belief and trust in God, and they can accommodate each other more or less. Sacredness remains their central theme.

During the Enlightenment, the religious revival lost its momentum. Although the power structure established by religion still exists, including wealth, persecution of dissidents, deprivation of freedom of thought, monopoly of education and so on. Therefore, the enlightener attacked the church with all his strength.

Now they can get the support of naturalistic world outlook, successful scientific methods, criticism, doubt and empiricism. This new way of thinking extends to the human condition and the transformation of human society, and it is a science about people and society.

Voltaire and Newton are actually god-fearing people. It's just that they turned to the mercy of God from the aspect of human depravity and redemption, which is a view that is more integrated with natural religion (we might as well call it creationism).

Of course, this critical reason is also used for authority, tradition and custom, whether they come from religion, law, government or social habits. Asking questions, asking for experiments, and not accepting what has been done or said and thought in the past are the methodology and spirit of the times in the Enlightenment.

/kloc-the enlightenment thinkers in the 0/8th century are very ambitious. They want to study for human beings and society and do what Newton did for the Institute of Nature in the 0/7th century. The formation of this thought is one of their boldest and most influential ideas, and it has become a part of the humanistic tradition. The mixed records of the Enlightenment have a prophetic influence on future generations.

Economics: Durgo, Adam? sago

Montesquieu: "Legal meaning" can be said to be the enlightenment of modern sociology. He made a comparative study of climate, law, religion, governance principles, past cases, customs and habits, and formed the universal spirit of society. Although this will lead to social determinism and historical relativity, he puts the moral necessity of freedom above determinism relativity, but he also violates his own logic and insists on opposing autocratic rule, which is immoral.

In the psychological and moral analysis of human nature, we have not achieved as great success as social analysis.

The biggest difference between the rational era of17th century and the enlightenment era of18th century is that the enlightenment era overthrew the premise of rationality and put forward empiricism.

Hume's use of the word "reason" is limited to the inference related to thoughts and the discrimination between true and false, and has nothing to do with the actions, values, motives and feelings concerned by moral judgment. The premise of morality is emotion-pursuing happiness and avoiding pain and misfortune. We realize that both motivation and behavior come from feeling, not from reason or revelation. Any belief or value has nothing but human experience. Therefore, we must find the happiness that most people want.

Hume influenced Bentham's next generation. In the Introduction to Moral Principles and Legislative Work published in 1789 French Revolution, Hume proposed that the touchstone of legislation and system is whether the happiness of the greatest number of people can be maximized, which later became the driving force for the legislative, political and economic reforms advocated by him and philosophical radicals in the first half of the19th century.

The new turning point of the Enlightenment is Russo Russo's claim that the lessons learned from feelings, feelings and hearts are the truth that rational minds can never learn, and the only truth that can provide correct action guidance. Russo stimulated emotional revival and emotional worship.

The root of morality is not rationality, nor the consistency of self-interest and public interest, nor the utilitarian principle, but the "inner voice". To dislike the corrosiveness of civilized society and return to nature, human nature is the will of nature, and morality comes from an uneducated conscience. Therefore, it is a complete opposition to human depravity and evil.

According to his "social contract theory", it is deduced that sovereignty belongs to the people and all the people, and all the people should try their best to express their universal will. He was the first person to explain people's sovereignty. Other enlightenment thinkers focused on enlightened monarchs and did not trust democracy. Russo's political views are consistent with his theory of human nature.

Baumgarden's aesthetic history makes aesthetics independent.

Winkelmann initiated art history.

In the 1970s, a hurricane movement took place in Germany, which opposed rationalism in the Enlightenment, condemned rationalism for subjugating the feelings, personality and spontaneity of genius to cold classical rationalism rules and unnatural tastes, and also opposed French hegemony.

The representative figure is Goethe.

Another representative is Hurd. He separated the rational method of scientific research from the study of human phenomena and studied human beings. Through historical science: groups and their cultures, including language, law, literature, religious beliefs, myths and symbols, systems, etc. Britain believes that every period, country, culture and society has its own unique characteristics. There is no universal ideal and universal humanity, only diversity and emphasis on individuality.

This field of knowledge needs to be mastered from the inside and put itself in the human group or society in which it is active through imaginary sympathy.

Finally, Kant, whose portrait in his study is Russo.

Kant linked reason with experience. His philosophical research focuses on people, not the transcendental or natural world. People's thinking, experience and imagination. All we can know is what we have come into contact with in people's experiences. People's thinking ability is not arbitrary, but follows a certain pattern and category. This is a bridge between empiricism and rationalism.

Then came the American Revolution of Independence and the French Revolution.

The Enlightenment is an ideological revolution, and its goal is intellectuals. Except Rousseau, he didn't trust the masses, but it destroyed the old system and made the revolution possible. The French Revolution was not mainly ideological, but a combination of many realistic factors, but the radicals used the ideas of the Enlightenment and turned them into slogans: citizens, social contract, universal will, human rights, freedom, equality and fraternity.

The Renaissance ended in a religious war against humanitarianism, and the Enlightenment ended in a reign of terror against humanitarianism.

Third, 19th century (1789- 19 14)

The application of rationality and freedom in politics and economy made this stage affect the 20th century forever. At that time, people believed that if everyone's energy was completely released, the world would move forward forever and be full of optimism.

Science has replaced philosophy, challenged religion, provided spiritual guarantee and mastered nature. Newton's "motive force" was released from theology and explained by the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

Comte tried to apply the methods in natural science to social and moral research. Spencer and Max claimed that they did it. They came to a set of determinism laws that can be compared with Newton's laws of motion, and there is no room for contingency, divine intervention or personal choice. Darwin abolished the dividing line between natural science and human research.

Darwin's theoretical basis is the viewpoint of evolution and the process of natural selection in the process of evolution, which ends the special status of human beings and equates human beings with animals.

France: political application

The first person who foresaw the irresistible demand for equality and continued to put forward the democratic consequences was the young Norman aristocrat Tocqueville, who published Democracy in America at 1825. From his observation of the United States, he foresaw that "in order to ensure equality, people will demand to increase the centralization of the country, which will lead to new forms of tyranny, even unintentionally." They seek freedom for equality. However, the more freedom is used to establish equality, the more difficult it is to obtain freedom itself, which is inversely proportional. " "People are increasingly counting on the state to provide them with security, provide them with the necessities they expect, facilitate their entertainment, provide guidance for their industry, and stipulate the inheritance and distribution of their property, but they have not saved their thoughts and lives." "Maybe this is God's will, and it is better for all mankind to get a little lower happiness." Don't let a few people reach the edge of perfection. "Tocqueville believes that safeguarding freedom means safeguarding human dignity, so he devoted his life to participating in the opposition party and emphasized decentralization. However, after witnessing the brief second * * and the country 1848- 1852, the government was overthrown by Napoleon's coup, and he established the first dictatorship, the country name Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte. Second, the Republic of China expanded the number of voters from 200,000 to 9 million, but the new voters willingly gave power to the man who promised everything to everyone, and his only capital was to have a great name. He represents the combination of equal conditions and autocratic power.

Tocqueville wrote a book to prove that centralized government organizations were not created by the revolution, but were established by the old system before the revolution. The French Revolution not only did not overthrow it, but continued it. The regime changed, but the centralized structure remained unchanged.

Socialism goes further. Originally, socialists always emphasized the inequality of wealth and opportunity based on humanitarianism, but Malthus clarified that wages should not be raised beyond the subsistence level, otherwise any growth would be offset by the population growth it brought.

Until Marx put socialism on a different but solid foundation, he cited historical determinism. In fact, this foundation runs counter to the humanistic tradition, but Marx created a brand-new attitude towards society and history and endowed human knowledge with a new way.

Germany: Art Application

Germany, like Italy in the Renaissance, found a way of expression in art, and music reached a perfect classical form, which perfectly combined the deep feelings of human beings with the unparalleled innovative power in the development of new forms.

Goth can represent the characteristics of this period. It deliberately cultivates balance and harmony, combines literature with other disciplines, studies natural science, and restricts the subjective common fault of the times with the objective world. Because of scientific research, it also has the concept of organism, and does not believe that the mechanical principle can be applied to any living thing, nor does it believe that the ontological existence of organic life can be decomposed by analytical methods.

Restricting the formal laws in nature is the same as restricting the formal laws of a poem, a piece of music or a work of art. Man should develop all his abilities-feeling, reason, imagination and understanding-into a real unity, and he does not believe in any of them, whether it is imagination, abstraction or will.

Another representative is Schiller.

Under their influence, Germany has the same belief in the power of thought to shape life and the ability of individual self-cultivation.

Schiller especially believes that the experience of art forms-poetry and drama on him-can awaken people more than anything else. "Through the beautiful morning door, we entered the real field."

Germany was criticized by Tocqueville and Mill for not caring about the current situation because of its emphasis on self-cultivation.

Humboldt invests in education.

As for Lehmacher, his influence on German Protestantism is second only to Luther.

He proposed a religion with a humanistic view. Belief in God does not come from theological argumentation or Christian dogma-atonement through Christ's suffering-but from personal human consciousness: "God's highest instruction in a person's heart invites him to live an immortal life outside the time domain, which is not bound by strict laws of time." If you want to find the god who will work in your heart, that is, the noblest discovery of human nature, you must consciously cultivate your inner life and

Britain, England

The relationship between man and nature is a major theme in English poetry, which has been strengthened with the pollution of industrialization. Shelley, Keats, Wordsworth

Coolidge corrected Bentham's previous view that Bentham's view can only be used in economics. However, Coolidge emphasized the organic view of social, historical and cultural philosophy. They believe that in the development of capitalism, the value of human beings has been seriously ignored.

Mill appreciated Coolidge Mill's On Freedom very much.

If we only emphasize that ordinary men and women can achieve dignity, kindness and great potential, but ignore that most of us have split personalities and few people can reach the level that people should achieve, then such humanism is shallow and unreasonable.

The novelist is playing this role. Through novels, the ugly human nature and the suffering world are presented.

Writer George? Eliot and Arnold, the poet and critic.

Critics Ruskin and Morris criticized the social middle class.

It is completely reasonable to call the period from 1870 to 19 14 the peak of liberalism. The humanistic tradition has made a lot of contributions to it, but since then it has lost the strength and motivation to continue to grow. Trade protectionism, socialism and imperialism have sprung up.

The fourth and twentieth centuries

1883, Danish critic Brandis published Men of the Modern Breakthrough, and the word "modern" became popular from then on. Nietzsche aroused his fascination with irrationality. Bergson's intuitionism, Saulier's theory of violence, Freud's exploration of unconsciousness and dreams, aesthetic worship of art for art's sake, various experiments and a sense of confusion have all caused confusion to the humanistic tradition, because there is no restriction of objectivity on subjectivity.

Swedish dramatist Strindberg (1849- 19 12), the characters in the play: "Because they are modern figures, they are more hysterical, more divided and more shaken than before. They are the combination of the past and the modern, the bits and pieces of books and newspapers, the fragments of human nature and the rags of exquisite clothes.

In short, a alienated, discontinuous, irrational, divided and often desperate world outlook began to appear, replacing rationality, optimism and order.

Anthropology, sociology and history cannot be separated, otherwise there is a danger of intolerance.

According to the tradition of French rationalism, Durkheim, two leaders of modern sociology, showed distrust of history and preferred to study history through definition and analysis. Weber, on the other hand, shows distrust of the definition according to German historical tradition and prefers to discuss the theory according to the historical situation. The former is to turn sociology into an empirical rational science, so that sociology transcends the subjectivity of historical humanities, while the latter is to combine it with historical humanities.

Religious psychology: William? James Jung

Psychology: Freud, Adler

Modern art and literature have achieved a double revolution through their new forms: on the one hand, they acknowledge the split nature and irrational factors of human beings, on the other hand, they acknowledge the fragmentation of consciousness, the fuzziness of experience and the relativity of truth.

Thus, a new version of humanism appeared.

But the core element of humanism remains unchanged: 1. People are the center; 2. People are valuable and dignified; In order to make people valuable and dignified, it is necessary to educate and strive for freedom, so that people have the ability to choose and the freedom of will; 3. Paying attention to ideas can neither be viewed in isolation from the social and historical background, nor can it be simply attributed to class interests, economic interests, gender or other instinctive impulses.

Rationality has become the core of humanism and the subject of debate. It has been repeatedly debated: what is its scope and achievements? Rousseau and Goethe both questioned the excessive rationality. Extreme rationality and irrationality are contrary to the balance required by humanistic thought.

The three core elements of humanism do not prevent humanism from having a religious dimension. History has repeatedly proved the combination of teaching and humanistic thought. The biggest difference between humanism and religion is not secularism, but the theory of human depravity and humanism's trust in human ability. These two extreme examples are shown in the theologian Barthes' insistence that there is no road between man and God, and Russell's insistence that human beings must rely entirely on themselves to make their dreams in a universe hostile to human beings.

Between these two extremes, it is the combination of religion and humanism, from Erasmus' humanistic research methods to natural religion, emotional religion and even agnosticism.

Humanistic values are compatible with niebuhr's Christian realism, Shi Huaizhe's respect for life and martin buber's "I-you" relationship, and even an important part of their philosophy.

Humanists in any form combine religious beliefs if they believe that there is a power in the universe that is stronger than ourselves and can rely on him to help us.

Humanism in the 20th century has to face another big problem, that is, its relationship with science. Researchers can never be equated with studying human physiological carriers. It was first put forward by Vico and later developed by German thinkers such as Voltaire and Cassirer, and then put forward the view that the human cultural world transcends the natural world, which needs human literature, that is, social science, to master and understand. The balance advocated by Goethe is the natural world, the humanistic world and the objective world.

In the future, humanism in the twentieth century needs to end this great separation and combine them without losing their independence and effectiveness.

Verb (abbreviation of verb) the future of humanism

From 1980s to 1930s, a new version of humanism began to appear, which broke the earlier optimistic assumption and thought that the starting point should be to recognize the duality of human nature and the irrational power of individuals and society, which was already expounded by pioneers such as Ibsen, Freud and Weber.

After the mid-20th century, no philosophy about human beings can remain intact, just like humanism, Christianity, Marxism and science. Only after some struggle can we realize the deep suffering and unfathomable evil of human nature revealed by the experience of this historical period. So a new version is bound to appear.

Some people claim that humanism belongs to the ideology of bourgeois individualism, but this situation only appears in a certain stage of humanism history. Not only the humanism of the ancient world, but also the humanism of the Renaissance did not conform to this statement. It also obviously ignores humanism's critical attitude towards economic individualism, which finally surfaced as a political program of government intervention after repeated criticism.

Therefore, there is really no reason to equate economic individualism with human personality with fundamental significance; The latter is of central significance to the humanistic tradition. Personality is not atomic isolation. On the contrary, according to the humanistic point of view, the impulse to socialize, the desire to develop interpersonal relationships, the need for care and cooperation, and the need to belong to a certain group of people are all necessary components of human life. Without these requirements, an individual's identity remains incomplete.

Joint action with others is one of the greatest potential wealth of mankind. People are not only individuals with different characteristics, but also social people.

What does the humanistic tradition represent in the past 600 years? It refuses to accept the determinism or reductionism views on human beings, and insists that although people do not enjoy complete freedom, they still have freedom of choice to some extent. However, the humanistic attitude does not guarantee that everyone will make a good choice, correctly foresee the result, or avoid disaster, but only that if we can find the courage and will to make a choice, we still have many choices to make.