On the Function and Significance of Imperial Examination in the History of China

Yu Yingshi: On the Function and Significance of Imperial Examination in the History of China

China com

2065438+Official account of China New Media on June 7, 2006

order

This year (2005) coincides with the centenary of the abolition of the imperial examination system in China. 2 1 century English newspaper decided to launch a special commemorative issue. As early as a year ago, I accepted the invitation of the editor. But I didn't expect that during the scheduled writing period, there were other things that interfered and I couldn't write calmly. This article was written in a hurry. Please forgive the editors and readers for their hasty fallacy.

If a series of activities such as the establishment of imperial academy, the establishment of "Doctor of Five Classics" and "Disciple", the setting of subjects and shooting strategies by Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty in BC 124 are regarded as the origin of the imperial examination, then the imperial examination system lasted for two thousand years in China, starting from and ending with the unified dynasty system. Such a long tradition is worth recalling, so I decided to make a long-term observation on the role and significance of this system in the history of China. Only by recognizing the historical characteristics of the imperial examination first can we really understand why the abolition of the imperial examination is an epoch-making event.

Imperial academy Taixuemen

First of all, I think the imperial examination is not a simple examination system. It has been playing an invisible integration function, closely linking the cultural, social and economic fields with the political power structure, forming a multi-faceted interactive whole. Below I will demonstrate the above observation from four parts inside and outside the imperial examination. This paper is a general study, not a periodical-style special study. Although many original historical materials and modern monographs are referenced, there are no notes for the convenience of reference.

one

On the surface, the imperial examination can be said that the central government of the unified dynasty selected talents from the "scholar" classes all over the country through public examinations and incorporated them into the overall administrative system, holding positions at all levels from local to central. Why do "scholars" become the main source of talents for governing the country? This is based on a basic assumption in China's traditional political theory: "Scholars" are the product of spiritual cultivation and classic education, and only they can provide the moral integrity and knowledge and skills necessary for political order. Whether this hypothesis is credible is another question, and there is no need to delve into it here; But the undeniable fact is that it is deeply rooted in China's cultural tradition. Therefore, for the sake of "long-term stability", almost every dynasty took "opening imperial examinations" as the first major event and paid attention to it first. Even the so-called "conquering dynasties" (such as Liao, Jin and Yuan) had to be imitated under certain restrictions, although its importance could not be compared with the imperial examination in the Han Dynasty.

If you want to know why the imperial examination sprouted in China as early as the second century BC and lasted for two thousand years, you have to start with the origin and evolution of scholars. Under the "feudal" system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, "scholar" was the lowest among the ancient nobles, but since the Spring and Autumn Period, the "feudal" system has gradually disintegrated. On the one hand, the upper class aristocrats were reduced to "scholars"; On the other hand, the lower-class "Shu Ren" also rose to "scholar", so the number of "scholar" began to surge. At the same time, the nature of "scholar" has also undergone important changes: from ancient scholars who did not distinguish between civil and military, they became scholars who studied "poetry, calligraphy, etiquette and music", which is equivalent to what sociologists call "experts in cultural affairs". This social change was completed in the Warring States period. As a special social stratum, "Scholar" officially entered the historical stage of China, and the first two schools of Confucianism and Mohism represented the prototype of "Scholar".

Although there are ideological differences between Confucianism and Mohism, they both regard the establishment and maintenance of political order as the primary task of the "scholar" class. Confucius' famous saying that "scholars aim at Tao" has made clear the social function of "scholars": they must shoulder the heavy responsibility of changing "there is no Tao in the world" into "there is a Tao in the world". Today, Xia Zi's statement that "learning to be excellent is to be an official" is criticized by everyone, but at that time, it was obviously giving play to the meaning of Confucius' "A scholar's ambition lies in the Tao", which is spiritually complementary to Zeng Shen's so-called "A scholar must be loyal and faithful, and the road is long, but it is Xiu Yuan's Xi". Mozi lived in the early Warring States period, and the "scholar" was much more active politically than in the Spring and Autumn Period, so he further demanded that the monarchs of all countries should be "Shang Xian" and "pro-scholar". On the positive side, he emphasized that "people of virtue" are "the treasure of the country, assisted by the country" because they are "virtuous, eloquent and knowledgeable in Taoism"; The monarch must treat them "generously, expensively, with respect and dignity". On the negative side, he even warned: "No one can live in his own country by slowing down the sages and forgetting the scholars."

Confucius

The transformation of social structure and the advocacy of Confucianism and Mohism eventually led to a fairly common monarch's "respecting the sages" movement. Since the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, there has been a record of Wei Wenhou's "art training" in Xia Zi and Lu Miaogong's respect for Li Zisi. In the middle of 4th century BC, Qi Xuanwang rebuilt the Gong Xue in Xia Ji, which was the largest and longest-lasting institution in the Warring States Period. Since then, in order to reform and strengthen themselves, all countries have made "recruiting talents and talents" a top priority, and the political arena has been completely controlled by "scholars." But the scholars at that time were all so-called "tourists" and were not restricted by the "national" world; Their number is very large, and they often flow between "countries", forming a decisive "international" force. Because of this, when measuring the strength of a "country" or a political group (such as the "quadruplets" of Qi, Zhao, Chu and Wei). ), in which the number of "scholars" has become the most important indicator. It is no accident that the political motto of "those who gain a scholar prosper, those who lose a scholar perish" was widely circulated at the end of the Warring States Period.

The above summary is enough to show that "scholar", as a professional social stratum, was formally formed in the middle and late Warring States period. This emerging class has two most important characteristics: First, the "scholar" has changed from the bottom of the ancient aristocracy to the "head of the four people" in the new social structure. There is a sentence in Gu Liang Chunqiu that best illustrates this change:

There were four kinds of people in ancient times: intellectuals, businessmen, farmers and workers. (the first year of success)

"Ancient" is nothing more than the saying of "reform from ancient times". In fact, this sentence accurately reflects the social reality of the Warring States period. Scholars, businessmen, agriculture and industry are professional categories, and scholars and businessmen were undoubtedly the two most active classes at that time. The concept of "scholars are the first of the four people" has since solidified (as for the order of the four people in later generations, it was revised because of "emphasizing agriculture and neglecting business"). Second, due to spiritual cultivation and classic education, the major of "scholar" is mainly to serve as a leader in all aspects and levels in the government; By the end of the Warring States period, this was also recognized by the society. So "Shi" and "Shi" were inseparable in the language at that time. Mencius has long said a meaningful sentence: "A scholar's official position is better than a farmer's accomplishment." This clearly recognizes that "scholars" take "officials" as their major, and at the same time affirms the social division of labor of the four people. Later, Xunzi even invented the word "official", specifically referring to the official position, in order to compare with the concept of "Chu Shi".

The formation of the "scholar" class and its huge social motivation were the fundamental reasons why the Han Dynasty had to open its political power to the "scholar". As we all know, Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang was born as a "rogue" and won the world. At first, he completely ignored the "scholar"; He said openly, "Nai Weng won the world in one fell swoop, so why bother with poetry?" However, after he was emperor for eleven years, he suddenly changed his ways and tried to imitate Zhou Wenwang and Qi Huangong. This means that he realized the truth that "the world can get it at once, but it can't be cured at once". The imperial edict frankly admits that he is willing to "honor" all the "sages and doctors" who are willing to travel with me, so as to "serve the ancestral temple for a long time". But why did it take 70 years for Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty to formally establish the system and open up a road from "scholar" to "official"? This is also forced by the forces of the "scholar" class step by step. In order to consolidate Liu's world, Emperor Gaozu established many independent hereditary kingdoms and vassal States, which were ruled by Liu's children respectively. The political pattern in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period almost reappeared in the unified empire. "History of Zou Yangchuan records very clearly:

Han Xing, vassals and kings were all autonomous and hired talents, while Wu attracted tourists from all directions.

Portrait of Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang

It can be seen that the diversification of political centers has also caused the revival of the "tourist" atmosphere. At the end of the Warring States Period, the ranks of "scholars" were spectacular, but generally speaking, they were "humble places, where they lived for a long time" (see Biography of Historical Records and Lisi). In order to enter the official position, they had to travel between "countries" because this was their only livelihood. The situation of scholars in the early Han Dynasty was still the same, so before Emperor Wu implemented the policy of "cutting vassals" (BC 128), they were active as "wanderers" in the small court of the independent kingdom, adding fuel to the fire for the separatist forces under the unified situation. The rebellion of Wu and Chu in Jingdi period was closely related to the political activities of "You". This situation even lasted until the early years of Emperor Wu. Chao Cuo on Salt and Iron;

Japanese scholars Huainan and Hengshan study literature and recruit scholars widely. Shandong Confucian and Mohan people gathered between Jianghuai, giving lectures and writing dozens of books. However, he died of betrayal, rebellion and clan.

Grasping this specific historical background, we can truly understand why Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty set up imperial academy in the central government on the one hand, and let the counties and counties inspect the filial piety scholars on the other. Under the influence of Confucian scholars such as Dong Zhongshu and Gong, he knew that only by opening up the road to becoming an official could "You Shi" be introduced into the system of the unified empire as much as possible and centrifugal force be transformed into centripetal force.

In a word, the emergence of the "scholar" class as the leader of the four peoples and its political strength is one of the important reasons why the unified empire in Han Dynasty had to learn from scholars. This is the origin of the imperial examination system and its continuous development under the later unified dynasty. After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, "scholar" has been separated from the stage of "wandering". On the one hand, they established more and more close relations with clans, relatives, township parties and others, on the other hand, they began to "permanently produce" and settle down in the countryside. In this way, scholars often have great influence in the counties where they live, relying on a solid social and economic foundation. Because the influence of scholars has gradually spread from the cultural and political fields to the social and economic aspects, and they are intertwined and unbreakable, their leading position as "the head of the four great families" is increasingly consolidated. After the Han Dynasty, the unified dynasty had to consider how to establish a cooperative relationship with the "scholar" class in order to "establish a commercial tradition". The imperial examination system reconstructed after Sui and Tang Dynasties must be understood from this angle. From the late Southern Dynasty, the so-called "cold people" of the "scholar" class began to rise. They wanted to break through the political monopoly of the gate and strive for the opportunity to enter the "official". This is the historical background of the new imperial examination replacing the nine-grade system. The Tang dynasty was a period when aristocratic families gradually declined, and the middle and lower class "scholars" gradually rose politically through the imperial examination. Therefore, the importance of "Jinshi Branch" will become more and more obvious in the future. The complete decline of the gate valve occurred in the Five Dynasties and the Northern Song Dynasty, so the so-called "four-people society" was generally established from the Song Dynasty. The scholar is still the leader of these four people, but social mobility and the other three people-agriculture, industry and commerce-have entered a new era. On the one hand, "scholar" can no longer maintain the status handed down from generation to generation, and may be reduced to agriculture, industry and commerce at any time. Therefore, scholars in the Song Dynasty, such as Lu You and Yuan Cai, are concerned about how future generations should choose their jobs when they can't be "scholars". On the other hand, agriculture, industry and commerce are not fixed hereditary occupations, but also have the opportunity to be promoted to "scholar", so JaeHee Ning two years (1069), Su Zhe's Huang Shu said:

Today, where there are agriculture, industry and commerce, no one abandons the old and follows the literature.

This sentence is enough to prove that the social foundation of "scholar" has been far expanded than that of Tang Dynasty. The "scholar" in Su Zhe's Huang Jing refers to the participants in the imperial examination; This is a new trend in China's social history, which will be slightly supplemented below and will not be discussed here. In short, the imperial examination system after the Tang and Song Dynasties has become a pillar of the traditional imperial examination system. Both Zhu Yuanzhang, who was deeply hostile to scholars, and the Manchu dynasty occupied by foreigners needed to rely on the integration function of the imperial examination.

imperial civil examination

two

In order to further illustrate the integration function of the imperial examination, I want to talk about two issues: first, the regional distribution of talents; Second, how can the imperial examination adapt to social mobility, but it can only be a minor.

Land of talents