What were the factors that promoted and hindered agricultural development in ancient China?

(1) Reform and progress of agricultural production tools in past dynasties

The productivity level of primitive society was extremely low, in the Stone Age and Stone Age, while Beijingers and cavemen were in the Paleolithic Age. Banpo clan and Hemudu clan in the Neolithic age; Dawenkou culture began to enter the era of stone and stone combination in the middle and late period.

The tools of production in slave society progressed, and ironware appeared in the late Western Zhou Dynasty. During the Spring and Autumn Period, the use of iron farm tools and Niu Geng marked the remarkable improvement of social productivity in China.

The popularization of iron farm tools and the use of Niu Geng and Niu Geng during the Warring States Period was an agricultural power revolution in the history of agricultural technology in China.

During the Han Dynasty, Niu Geng was widely used and improved. Two cows pushed the bar, one cow pulled the plow, iron farm tools and Niu Geng spread to the frontier. The plough wall was invented in the Western Han Dynasty, more than 1000 years earlier than in Europe. Zhao Guo, an agronomist in the Western Han Dynasty, invented the seeder.

During the Three Kingdoms period, Wei invented turning irrigation tools;

Irrigation tools, such as gondolas and curved plows, were invented in the Tang Dynasty.

Understanding: Tool improvement is the most obvious sign of the development of productive forces, the most fundamental reason of economic development is the result of the development of productive forces, the most active factor of social change, and the decisive force to promote production relations and social progress. China's transition from primitive society to slave society and from slave society to feudal society was caused by the progress of productive forces (that is, the progress of production tools).

(2) Measures taken by successive governments to attach importance to agricultural development.

During the Spring and Autumn Period, the State of Qi reformed and developed production.

During the Warring States Period, Shang Yang of the State of Qin reformed, emphasizing agriculture and restraining commerce, and rewarding agriculture and weaving.

The Han dynasty advocated recuperation, paying taxes lightly and rewarding farming.

During the three kingdoms period, the system of wasteland reclamation was implemented;

Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty reformed and carried out the equal land system;

Sui and Tang dynasties implemented the system of land equalization and rent adjustment, and attached importance to the innovation of production tools and water conservancy construction;

The farmland water conservancy law in Wang Anshi's political reform in the Northern Song Dynasty was beneficial to the development of agriculture.

The rulers of Ming and Qing dynasties adjusted the relations of production and encouraged production, such as the "one whip method" in Ming dynasty, the "renamed field" in Kangxi and the "spreading land into acres" in Yongzheng, which were all beneficial to the development of agriculture.

Understand:

The feudal economy is characterized by natural economy, and the main sector of this economy is agriculture, which is related to the national economy and people's livelihood and the rise and fall of the country. Therefore, the rulers of all previous dynasties attached great importance to agriculture, and the ideas of "agriculture-oriented" and "building the country through agriculture" were the consistent guiding ideology of the rulers of all previous dynasties. From Shang Yang's political reform in the Warring States to the Qing rulers' policy of "emphasizing agriculture and restraining commerce", it was developed by the feudal natural economy and autocratic centralization in ancient China. Its implementation played a positive role in the stability of the country, the consolidation of the emerging landlord class regime and the social and economic development in the early feudal society, which should be affirmed. However, this policy opposes industry and commerce and suppresses agriculture, which will inevitably hinder the development of commodity economy and keep agriculture at a low level of natural economy for a long time. Its disadvantages became more serious in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which hindered the germination and growth of capitalism and was one of the important reasons why China fell behind the world.

The measures taken by the ancient government of China to encourage and attach importance to agricultural development were aimed at directly developing the economy and fundamentally consolidating the rule.

Generally speaking, in the early days of the establishment of each dynasty, the ruling groups made great efforts to govern and had their own governance goals. Their policies are often effective, which fully shows the reaction of production relations to productivity and superstructure to economic base.

③ Water conservancy

Spring and Autumn Period: Huaihe River Basin, built by Shao Pi for Chu Sun Shuai; A canal connecting the Huaihe River and the Yangtze River basin;

Warring States Period: Zheng Guoqu and Dujiangyan;

Qin: Lingqu communicates with Xiangshui Lishui;

Han dynasty: the regional characteristics of farmland water conservancy are obvious, and irrigation canals are mainly built in the Yellow River basin, with famous projects such as Liufuqu, Baiqu and Longshou Canal. Between Jianghuai and Jianghan, natural ponds are mainly built; Karez construction in northwest China;

Both Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and Emperor Han Ming carried out large-scale projects to harness the Yellow River and achieved good results.

Sui and Tang Dynasties: Sui Grand Canal; In the Tang Dynasty, full-time officials were set up to manage water conservancy, and water conservancy projects built in various places exceeded the sum of the six dynasties.

Northern Song Dynasty: Wang Anshi carried out the farmland water conservancy law and built more than 10 thousand water conservancy projects;

Yuan Dynasty: Huitong River and Tonghui River were dug to connect several major water systems.

Understanding: China has always attached importance to the construction of water conservancy projects, which is inseparable from the position of water conservancy in the ancient economy, because the most important production sector in ancient China was agriculture, which was greatly influenced by natural factors, especially when the productivity was underdeveloped and the people's ability to resist natural disasters was low. At the same time, water conservancy construction is not only directly related to the development of agricultural production, but also extends to the development of transportation and commerce. Therefore, the construction of water conservancy projects is the embodiment of the decisive content and function in China's ancient national management economy.

(4) Important land system

Well-field system: it is the state-owned land system in the slave society of the Western Zhou Dynasty. King Zhou distributed the land to the princes, and the recipients could only enjoy it and could not buy or sell it. They must pay tribute to Zhou Wang, fight him and obey his orders. Well-field system is the economic basis of enfeoffment system; During the Spring and Autumn Period, with the development of productive forces and the war of hegemony among princes, the well-field system gradually disintegrated and was replaced by feudal private ownership of land.

Farming system: Since the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, there have been frequent wars, social unrest and economic depression. In order to restore the development of agricultural production, Cao Cao promised to implement the agricultural reclamation system. Since then, the three countries have implemented farming system, and the rulers recruited exiled farmers, reclaimed wasteland according to military establishment, and set up officials to manage it. Settlers only have the right to use the land, but have no ownership. They pay a certain amount of harvest to the government in proportion. It was a state-owned land system in feudal society, which combined refugees with land, stabilized social order and promoted the recovery and development of agricultural production.

Equal field system: Since the Western Jin Dynasty, there have been frequent wars in the north and the economy has been seriously damaged. In order to restore and develop the economy, Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty implemented the land equalization system, which was always used in the Sui and Tang Dynasties and was seriously damaged by land annexation in the middle of the Tang Dynasty. It is a relatively complete land system and state-owned land system in feudal society, which is conducive to the recovery and development of social economy and ensures national military service, corvee and national financial income.

Understanding: Feudal private ownership of land can be roughly divided into three types: state-owned land ownership, landlord land ownership and peasant land ownership. Among them, the landlord's land ownership occupies the main position and is the basis of feudal production relations. State-owned land system will be destroyed in feudal society, because the essence of feudal land system is private land. As long as land ownership exists, land merger can not be suppressed, and the development of land merger will inevitably destroy the state-owned land system. Therefore, although well field system, wasteland system and land equalization system are beneficial to social and economic development to a certain extent, they will also disappear with the emergence and development of land ownership.

(5) Important tax system:

In the Spring and Autumn Period, the essence of "decreasing land expropriation" implemented by Guan Zhong of Qi State and Lu State was to recognize the private ownership of land and promote the disintegration of the well field system.

Household registration system: it is a strict management system for the people in Han Dynasty, and it is also a relatively complete tax system. Ordinary people with registered household registration are called "household registration by the whole people". They pay population tax, land rent, corvee and military service to the state according to their own population and assets, and the state controls them very strictly.

Rent-to-service system: The land equalization system in the Northern Wei Dynasty stipulated that the farmers who collected the land should pay the land tax and transfer tax to the state, as well as perform military service and corvee.

Concession system: The Sui Dynasty followed the concession system of the Northern Wei Dynasty, and later stipulated that people over 50 could pay a certain amount of silk instead of labor, which was called "harmony". On the basis of the Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty reformed the taxation system with the idea of frivolous taxation, and there was no age limit for "Yong".

In this way, the production time of farmers is guaranteed, the tax burden of farmers is reduced, which is beneficial to the development of agricultural production and also guarantees the national tax revenue.

Two tax laws: during the Tianbao period, the land merger was serious, the land equalization system could not be implemented, the rent adjustment system could not be maintained, and the national fiscal revenue could not be guaranteed. In order to solve the country's financial difficulties, in 780, Tang Dezong accepted the proposal of Prime Minister Yang Yan and implemented two tax laws, namely, paying taxes according to land and assets, paying household taxes according to assets, paying local taxes according to land, and paying taxes twice a year in summer and autumn. Its implementation is a major change in China's tax system, which has changed the population-led collection standard since the Warring States Period. On the surface, the feudal state relaxed its personal control over farmers. The expansion of tax sources has ensured the country's fiscal revenue and relatively reduced the burden on farmers, but land merger is no longer restricted, and the land equalization system and rent adjustment system have been officially abolished.

A whipping method: In order to increase the government's fiscal revenue and ease class conflicts, Zhang Yu 158 1, the first cabinet official of the Ming Dynasty, popularized it all over the country, and "combined the original land tax, corvee tax and miscellaneous tax into one", converted it into silver, and distributed it on the fields according to the number of people and fields. The "one whip law" is a major reform of China's tax system. The provision of paying silver for service has relatively reduced the burden on farmers, indicating that farmers have relaxed their personal attachment to feudal countries. The method of levying taxes and silver meets the needs of the development of commodity economy and is conducive to the commercialization of agriculture and the growth of capitalism.

"Ding Ding Yin": It is stipulated that the Ding tax should be shared equally in the fields, and a unified silver should be levied. In this way, the poll tax system in China was abolished, the feudal state's control over farmers was further relaxed, and the phenomenon of hidden population was gradually reduced. Its implementation is of great significance to China's population growth and socio-economic development.

Understanding: China's tax system adapts to the land system and changes with the change of the land system. There are two trends in the change of China's tax system: first, the population standard gradually changed to the land standard, indicating that feudal countries gradually relaxed their personal control over farmers; First, the taxable goods have gradually changed from physical goods and labor to monetary land rent, indicating that the commodity economy in China is constantly developing.

2, handicraft industry

Development of textile industry (1);

Silk and hemp weaving industry: hemp textile industry came into being in Banpo clan; In the middle and late Dawenkou culture, silk weaving technology made progress, and China was the first country in the world to invent silk weaving. After several important stages of development, especially in Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, Song Dynasty and Ming and Qing Dynasties, the silk and linen weaving industry has been continuously developed and improved. Such as brocade, embroidery, Luo, yarn and other varieties in Han Dynasty; Chang 'an and Linzi in the Western Han Dynasty owned the most important government-run handicrafts in China. Plain yarn single clothes unearthed from Mawangdui Han Tomb in Changsha and a large number of silk cultural relics unearthed on the Silk Road fully illustrate the achievements of silk weaving industry in Han Dynasty. The development of silk industry provided material conditions for the opening of the famous Silk Road. Silk and linen fabrics in the Tang Dynasty spread all over the country. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the silk industry developed unprecedentedly, and a new production relationship-capitalism sprouted.

Cotton textile industry: cotton textile industry came into being in Han Dynasty, such as planting cotton in Xinjiang; Pueraria lobata produced in Huijiao area was listed as a tribute by the famous Guangwu Emperor of Yue Wu. During the Southern Song Dynasty, the cotton textile industry expanded to the south of the Yangtze River and gradually replaced linen as the main clothing material. In the Yuan Dynasty, Songjiang became the center of cotton textile, and a number of small towns in the south of the Yangtze River prospered due to the cotton textile industry.

Understand: China is a traditional feudal country with a long history of textile industry. Its development features are as follows: before the Northern Song Dynasty, China's textile industry was dominated by silk and hemp weaving, and after the Southern Song Dynasty, cotton cloth gradually became the main material for people; Textile industry mainly embodies the characteristics of feudal natural economy and is an important part of China's natural economy. After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the textile industry with the purpose of producing goods gradually flourished, and its development changed from quantitative to qualitative, resulting in a new production relationship, that is, the bud of capitalist production relations. However, due to the obstruction of feudal production relations, it has never been able to grow healthily.

(2) Ceramic industry:

Banpo painted pottery, Dawenkou black pottery, white pottery and other primitive societies are exquisite handicrafts; Shang and Zhou Dynasties was a leap in the history of China ceramics development. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, white porcelain was created in the north, which opened up a broad prospect for the development of China porcelain industry. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, porcelain kilns were distributed in many areas in the Central Plains and the south of the Yangtze River. In the Tang Dynasty, the famous three-color and secret-colored celadon appeared. The level of porcelain-making industry in the Northern Song Dynasty greatly exceeded that of the previous generation, with five famous kilns, namely Ding Kiln and Ru Kiln. The blue-and-white porcelain of Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province, has been sold at home and abroad, and became a famous porcelain capital in the Southern Song Dynasty and the Yuan Dynasty.

Understanding: The emergence and development of China ceramic industry originated from life, served for life, realized the unity of practicality and appreciation, and at the same time, it was an important article for foreign exchange, which contributed to China's economic development and foreign economic and cultural exchanges.

(3) Paper industry

Invention: Papermaking was invented in the Western Han Dynasty. The paper with a map unearthed in Fangmatan, Tianshui, Gansu Province is the earliest known paper in the world.

Improvement: 105, Cai Lun improved papermaking.

Development: During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the whiteness of paper increased, the texture became thinner, and the output increased greatly, gradually replacing bamboo slips and becoming the most important writing material;

Spread: After centuries, it spread eastward to Korea and Japan; During the Tang Dynasty, it spread westward to Switzerland (Arabia) and spread to Europe and North Africa through Arabia.

The four great inventions are an important symbol of China becoming an ancient civilization. The invention of papermaking is a great contribution of the Chinese nation to the development and progress of human civilization.

(4) Iron smelting industry:

Iron was used in the Western Zhou Dynasty;

The softening technology of cast iron was invented in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, which was a great achievement in the history of iron smelting in the world, more than 2000 years earlier than in Europe.

Han Dynasty: During the Western Han Dynasty, the iron smelting industry was divided into official and private. Coal became the fuel for ironmaking, and people invented quenching technology; DuDu invented the water platoon in the Eastern Han Dynasty, which made China lead the world in iron smelting for a long time. Wanhe Palace is a famous iron smelting center;

Sui and Tang dynasties: cutting, grinding, welding and other processes were widely used;

Liao-Jin period: the level of iron smelting in Liao-Jin was high;

In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, the iron smelting industry in Foshan, Guangdong Province produced six or seven thousand kilograms of iron a day.

Understanding: In the era of agricultural civilization, the development of iron smelting industry is an obvious sign of the progress of productive forces, which has effectively promoted social change and progress.

(5) Shipbuilding industry

During the Qin and Han Dynasties, the shipbuilding industry developed rapidly. In the Han Dynasty, oars, rudders and sails were invented, and anchors were also used. Surface shipbuilding and navigation technology have matured.

Sui and Tang Dynasties: Warships with propellers were the first to use mechanical power. It was possible to build the largest seagoing ship in the world at that time. In the early Tang Dynasty, more than 500 seagoing ships were built in Hongzhou alone.

Song dynasty: shipbuilding technology is in a leading position in the world, and the largest ship on the Yangtze River can carry more than ten thousand stones; Mingzhou, Quanzhou and Guangzhou in the Southern Song Dynasty were shipbuilding centers, and the ocean-going ships built could carry tens of thousands of stones of grain.

Ming Dynasty: Zheng He's fleet embodies the superb shipbuilding technology of Ming Dynasty.

Understanding: The development of China's ancient shipbuilding industry is closely related to the country's navigation and foreign relations, which complement each other. When the rulers attach importance to the development of foreign relations and navigation, the shipbuilding industry will develop, for example, in the Han, Tang, Song and Yuan Dynasties, when foreign exchanges are frequent, the shipbuilding industry will develop. From the mid-Ming dynasty to the Qing dynasty, the shipbuilding industry was affected by the rulers' implementation of the sea ban policy.

In the ancient handicraft industry, in addition to the above five industries, we should also pay attention to the paint industry, salt industry and bronze industry. What needs to be explained here is that although the handicraft industry in ancient China was very developed, it was once in a leading position in the world, but because the rulers all implemented the policy of emphasizing agriculture and restraining industry and commerce, it always served the development of agricultural civilized economy and was in a subordinate position. Although capitalist relations of production germinated and developed slowly in Ming and Qing Dynasties, they never entered the handicraft workshop era due to the obstruction of feudal relations of production, which undoubtedly had a negative impact on the modernization process of China.