How many schools of philosophy are there? What are the basic views of its various factions?

1. The meaning of materialism and idealism. Materialism and idealism are two philosophical schools formed by different answers to the first aspect of the basic question of philosophy. They can only be used in the philosophical sense, that is, when answering whether thinking or existence, spirit or matter is primary.

Materialism is a philosophy that material is the origin of the world, material comes first and spirit comes second.

(2) Idealism is a philosophy that asserts that spirit is the origin of the world, that spirit is primary, and that matter is secondary.

(3) No philosophy can surpass or reconcile materialism and idealism, which is the party spirit or partisanship of philosophy.

(4) Dualism is not an independent school of philosophy. It believes that spirit and matter are the same origin of the world, trying to reconcile the opposition between materialism and idealism, but eventually falling into idealism.

2. Historical Forms of Materialism (1) Materialism has experienced three historical forms, namely ancient naive materialism, modern metaphysical materialism and modern materialism, namely dialectical materialism and historical materialism.

(2) Materialism, as a universal world outlook, insists on explaining the world as it really is. Materialism and science are essentially the same, which is the philosophical basis of atheism.

(3) ancient naive materialism affirmed the materiality of the world and tried to find the origin of the world from some concrete objects, such as the five elements theory in ancient China and the theory that water and fire in ancient Rome were the origin of the world.

(4) Modern metaphysical materialism is based on modern natural science, but it deviates from the dialectical view that ancient philosophy regards the world as an interrelated whole.

3. The basic types and roots of idealism are subjective idealism and objective idealism.

(1) Subjective idealism regards subjective spirit as the only real existence and the source of the world, and objective things and even the whole material world are the products of this subjective spirit. The absurdity is that it will inevitably lead to "solipsism".

(2) The absurdity of objective idealism is that it turns a spirit divorced from any individual into an independent existence and regards it as the source of the world (such as reason, idea, universal spirit, absolute concept, etc.). ), and approved the "religious creationism" in a philosophical way.

(3) The epistemological origin of idealism. People's understanding is not linear, but a spiral curve. Any section of this curve may unilaterally become an independent straight line, leading people into the mud pit of idealism, and the interests and political needs of reactionary or conservative classes and forces will consolidate it. A certain feature, component, segment and aspect in people's cognitive process is exaggerated, making it absolute, leading to

Specifically, in every history of philosophical development, there are always two basic routes: materialism and idealism, dialectics and metaphysics, and the struggle between the two basic factions. There is no "middle line" outside them. The opposition between materialism and idealism, dialectics and metaphysics is a philosophical reflection of social class struggle.

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Materialism-Materialism is one of the two hostile basic factions in philosophy, and it is an ideological system opposite to idealism. It is a world outlook that only matter is the origin of the world, and advocates that matter comes first and consciousness comes second in basic philosophical issues. Materialism holds that the objective material world exists independently without human consciousness. Consciousness and thinking are only the products of the development of the material world to a certain stage, that is, the functions and attributes of the human brain. Everything and phenomena in the world are different manifestations of matter. The unity of the world lies in matter. Generally speaking, it is the world outlook of the advanced class, which reflects the interests of the advanced class for productivity and scientific development. Materialist philosophy is often an ideological weapon used by advanced social forces and progressive classes to oppose reactionary forces and religious superstitions, safeguard scientific development and promote social progress. Materialism holds that the world is essentially material; Matter is an objective reality that exists independently of people's consciousness or spirit, and consciousness is the reflection of the material world in the human brain. Materialism holds that matter comes first and spirit comes second. Idealism, on the other hand, holds that spirit is the first and material is the second. Specifically, the basic viewpoints of materialism are as follows: First, the world had matter before consciousness. Second, the consciousness is highly developed and organized. It is the reflection of the human brain on the material world. Third, consciousness is a reflection of the material world. All these arguments show that matter is the origin of the world, and it can exist independently without relying on spirit, so it is the first; Consciousness comes from matter and must depend on it to exist. There is no spirit that exists independently from matter in the world, so spirit is secondary. With the development of society, materialist philosophy has experienced three main stages of development: ancient naive materialism, mechanical materialism and dialectical materialism, that is, Marxist philosophy.

In the history of human philosophy, materialism has experienced three historical forms: ancient naive materialism, modern metaphysical materialism and Marxist dialectical materialism.

Ancient naive materialism is the primitive form of materialist philosophy. The basic feature of naive materialism is to try to find the unity of natural phenomena with infinite diversity in some concrete and tangible objects and some special things. Naive materialism affirms the material originality and unity of the world, but due to the limitation of the level of understanding, it always regards one or a specific material form as the material basis of the material origin and unity of the world. For example, Thales in ancient Greece believed that everything was born and returned to water, and China's ancient five-element theory believed that gold, wood, water, fire and earth were the five basic elements of everything. These are typical views of ancient naive materialism. The atomism of democritus and Epicurus in ancient Europe, and the monism of qi in ancient China, although they broke through the origin of the world to some extent.

The second form of materialist philosophy is modern metaphysical materialism, namely mechanical materialism. 1. The basic feature of metaphysical materialism is that it recognizes the materiality of the world, but explains the world with an isolated, static and one-sided view, and fails to see the universal connection and change between things and phenomena in the world, or only recognizes the mechanical connection and mechanical movement, thus showing mechanical and metaphysical characteristics. Second, the second limitation of metaphysical materialism is mechanical. The emergence and formation of modern metaphysical materialism is closely related to the characteristics of natural science development in this period. During this period, natural science was still in the stage of collecting, sorting out and analyzing empirical materials, and only mechanics developed into a relatively perfect form. This situation is reflected in philosophy. The dominant metaphysical way of thinking in this period is to observe and explain the world from an isolated, static and mechanical perspective, which caused the unique and inevitable limitations of modern metaphysical materialism at that time. Thirdly, another limitation of metaphysical materialism is its incompleteness, which is mainly manifested in its materialistic view of nature and idealistic view of social history. British materialism in 2008+07 century, French materialism in 18 century and Feuerbach materialism in Germany in 19 1940 are the main schools of modern metaphysical materialism.

Marxist dialectical materialism and historical materialism are the most thorough and scientific forms in the development of materialism and the third form in the history of materialism. It is the latest achievement that Marx and Engels summarized the proletarian struggle experience and the development of natural science in the 1940s, and critically inherited the excellent heritage of human culture. In particular, it was established on the basis of critically absorbing the reasonable factors of German classical philosophy. Dialectical materialism and historical materialism overcome the limitations and incompleteness of metaphysical materialism, organically unify materialism and dialectics, materialist view of nature and materialist view of history, and form a very complete and rigorous scientific theoretical system. It not only attaches importance to explaining the world in theory, but also emphasizes transforming the world in practice. It is practical materialism. This is the highest form of the development of materialist philosophy so far, and it is also the most scientific.

Historical idealism can be traced back to slave society. However, in ancient times, his idealistic views only involved some fields such as state and politics, not the understanding of human society as a whole. Historical idealism is integrated into the general world outlook, and there is no independent system theory. The relatively formed historical idealism is an idealistic theological view of history formed in feudal society. In medieval Europe, the idealistic view of history was attached to theology. And become a branch of theology. The theologian Augustine described the whole social history as a history of struggle between believers of God and those of the devil. As a result, the followers of God won and established an eternal kingdom on the earth. Therefore, secular rulers are the representatives of God on the earth. His book The Capital of God laid the foundation of the theological view of history. The idealistic historical view in theological form was manifested in other countries in feudal times. In view of the theological historical view centered on God, the emerging bourgeoisie put forward the human-centered theory of human nature and the humanitarian historical view. This view of history opposes the use of "providence" and "heaven" to explain history. It advocates finding the ultimate cause of social and political changes in people's understanding of eternal truth and justice. It regards unchangeable human nature as a measure of historical progress, and takes rationality, that is, people's understanding of their own nature, as the driving force of social development. Hegel, a modern bourgeois philosopher, attributed the historical foundation to "rationality" and "spirit". After the emergence of historical materialism, modern bourgeois philosophy of history opposed this scientific view of history. We will continue to promote new forms of historical idealism and the social and historical theories of pragmatism, positivism, existentialism, structuralism and neo-Thomas. While continuing to explain the social history with the mental factors such as rationality, internal needs, passion, feelings and providence, it will especially deny the objective laws of social development and the possibility of understanding and foreseeing the historical process. Various manifestations of historical idealism can be summarized into two theoretical forms: subjective idealism view of history, which advocates that human subjective will determines history; The objective idealism view of history advocates that some mysterious spiritual entity determines history. These two forms of historical idealism are essentially the same, both insist that social consciousness determines social existence, and in fact, both explain history with factors other than history itself. Their basic viewpoints are as follows: ① The social history is attributed to the history of consciousness, ignoring material production activities and reversing the real relationship between social existence and social consciousness; ② It is believed that only a few outstanding figures such as emperors and princes, heroes and heroes are the masters of history, and the whole world history is just a process in which heroes realize their own thoughts and will, and even the highest will can only "enlighten" them and express them through them; ③ obliterate the objective laws of historical development.

Historical idealism replaces the real connection of social history with subjective and artificial connection, which is essentially a distortion of the true face of social history and hinders the development of human understanding and truth. However, as a certain development stage of human exploration of social and historical essence, its existence has its historical reasons and inevitability. Historical idealism has accumulated certain ideological materials for human beings to understand society in the long-term evolution process; The questions it raises from the opposite side also prompt people to think deeply; In the theoretical system of historical idealist philosophers and thinkers, there are also valuable historical dialectics and some historical materialism factors or buds, which prepare for the emergence of scientific historical view.

Naive materialism-also called spontaneous materialism-is a theory that the world originated from one or several specific material forms, and it is a primitive materialistic view spontaneously formed by human beings in the process of understanding the world. The main contributions of simple materialism are as follows: First, it believes that the world is made of matter, not created by God, and affirms that the origin of the world is matter. The second is to try to explain the emergence of all things from the process of material development and change. It has simple dialectical thought. Although naive materialism is correct in essence, it is the first of the three main stages in the history of materialist philosophy, which has played a certain role in history and has a great influence on the development of materialism later, but due to the limitation of history, class and scientific knowledge level, it is still perceptual and intuitive, lacks scientific argumentation, and is not idealistic in explaining social and historical phenomena.

Mechanical materialism, also known as metaphysical materialism, is one of the three main stages of materialist philosophy. It was produced on the basis of scientific progress during the rise of European capitalism in 17 and 18 centuries. Due to the class status of mechanical materialism and the limitation of the development level of natural science at that time, mechanical materialism showed the following three limitations: first, it was mechanical; Second, metaphysics; Third, historical idealism.

Dialectical materialism-Dialectical materialism is a Marxist philosophy and a scientific world outlook with the organic unity of materialism and dialectics. Dialectical materialism holds that the world is essentially material. Engels said, "The real unity of the world lies in its materiality". (Anti-Turin Theory, Selected Works of Marx and Engels, Volume III, page 83) Matter is primary and consciousness is secondary. Consciousness is a highly developed material-the function of the human brain, and it is the reflection of the objective material world in the human brain. Dialectical materialism holds that the material world moves, changes and develops according to its own internal laws, and "everything is divided into two". It reveals that the fundamental reason for the development of things lies in the contradictions within things. The dual nature of things is both unity and struggle, which promotes the continuous development of things from low to high. Therefore, the contradictory law of things, that is, the law of unity of opposites, is the most fundamental law of the movement, change and development of the material world. Dialectical materialism holds that human cognition is the reflection of the movement of the objective material world in the human brain. Dialectical materialism epistemology solves the problems of the content, source and development process of human cognition from both material and dialectical aspects. It believes that matter can be transformed into spirit, and spirit can be transformed into matter. The realization of this dialectical unity of subjectivity and objectivity must be realized through practice. Practical viewpoint is the primary and basic viewpoint of dialectical materialism epistemology. Knowledge comes from practice and turns to serve practice. Practice, cognition, re-practice, re-cognition, etc. This is an infinite development process for people to correctly understand and actively transform the world. Therefore, dialectical materialism epistemology is a dynamic and revolutionary reflection theory. Dialectical materialism is the world outlook and location of the proletariat, the theoretical basis of the proletarian party's strategy and tactics, and a powerful ideological weapon for the proletariat and the revolutionary people to scientifically understand the world and the revolutionary world.

Historical Development of Material Category-Historical Development of Material Category: The concept of material is a philosophical abstraction. In ancient times, simple materialists intuitively described matter as one or several directly perceptible physical objects, such as gold, wood, water, fire and earth. In modern times, metaphysical materialists understand the atom as the smallest unit that constitutes everything in the material world. On the basis of summarizing the achievements of predecessors' understanding of matter, Marx and Engels believe that matter does not refer to one or some things, but the sum of all kinds of things. Later, according to Lenin's research and understanding, it is proposed that matter is an objective reality that consciousness can reflect without relying on consciousness, and the only characteristic of matter is objective reality. Materialist philosophy puts forward the category of matter.

Idealism-Idealism is one of the two opposing basic schools in philosophy, and it is an ideological system opposite to materialism. It originated from the Greek idea, which means "idea". It does not recognize the objective existence of the material world, regards consciousness or spirit as the root of all things in the world, and thinks that matter is only the product of consciousness or spirit. On the basic philosophical issue of the relationship between thinking and existence, spirit and matter, it holds that spirit is primary. Matter is secondary, and consciousness determines matter, not matter determines consciousness. There are two main forms of idealism philosophy: subjective idealism and objective idealism. Subjective idealism holds that the world is the product of people's subjective consciousness. Like subjective idealism, objective idealism also thinks that spirit is the source of the material world, but only thinks that the world is not the product of one's subjective consciousness. It is the product of some mysterious and "objective" spirit that exists somewhere in the world. It advocates the world view that only spirit is the origin of all things. Idealism holds that consciousness and spirit are primary and the origin of the world, while nature, things and the external world are secondary and derived from consciousness or spirit. Idealism holds that everything in the world is the product or expression of spirit. In epistemology, idealism advocates that human knowledge is innate or that human mind is subjectively self-generated, and denies that knowledge comes from practice and the external material world. In the view of social history, it regards human history as the embodiment of some innate principles and principles, or the product of the will of outstanding people, regards spirit, will and motivation as the decisive force of historical development, denies that the production of material means of production and its subject (laborers) are the creators of history, and advocates the view of "genius" history.

Idealism has different manifestations in the long-term development, but its basic forms are divided into subjective idealism and objective idealism.

Subjective idealism fundamentally denies the objective existence of the objective world and thinks that only "feeling" and "self-awareness" are the original things that really exist. There are many famous representatives of subjective idealism in the history of philosophy, such as: (1) Wang Shouren of China in the Ming Dynasty, who proposed that "there is nothing outside the heart, and it is unreasonable outside the heart" (Volume 6 of Yangming Quanshu). (2) In Europe18th century, British Becquerel once put forward the views that "things are a collection of ideas", "existence is perceived" and "objects and feelings are originally a kind of thing". He believes that things are just a collection of ideas such as color, taste, smell, image and hardness, which is just "natural". There is no independent existence outside the human mind, but their existence lies in the perception and understanding of them by the human mind "(the principle of human knowledge). The epistemological roots of subjective idealism are: the relationship between feeling and the external material world is reversed, which distorts the objective things that people perceive through feeling into nothing without feeling; As the source of feeling and thinking, objective things are said to be derivatives of feeling and thinking. Subjective idealism will inevitably lead to solipsism, which is against science. The so-called solipsism is a philosophical view that only admits one's own existence. People who hold this view regard the world as the result of personal perception, or the product of personal spiritual creation, or from personal sensory experience, or from personal spiritual activities.

Objective idealism is relative to subjective idealism. Generally speaking, it does not deny the existence of the material world, but thinks that the material world is secondary and subordinate to the objective spirit, while the objective spirit (concept and absolute concept) exists independently before the material world and is primary. There are many famous representatives of objective idealism in the history of philosophy, such as China's (1) Zhu in the Southern Song Dynasty, who advocated the "reason" of the spirit first. Without this kind of thing, there would be no heaven and earth, and there would be no man and nothing "(Zhuzi Language, Volume I). (2) Plato in Europe and ancient Greece believed that "idea" (idea) was the only real existence, and all kinds of concrete things were only the shadow of "idea" and were derived from it. (3) Leibniz of modern Germany thinks that "list" is the only thing that exists. So it determines the nature and difference of different things. (4) German Hegel put forward that "absolute concept" ("absolute spirit") is the essence of the world, and both nature and human society are the products and manifestations of the development of the "absolute concept" movement. The cognitive root of objective idealism is that it absolutes the concept extracted from concrete things (reflecting the essence of things) and exaggerates it as divorced from concrete things.

Generally speaking, "schools of modern western philosophy" refers to various schools of philosophy popular in the west after the emergence of Marxist philosophy, which is the continuation of modern western philosophy. Although there are many schools of modern western philosophy, they generally belong to two major ideological trends: scientism (positivism) and humanism (irrationalism).

? Western modern scientism philosophy originated from empiricism in modern England, emphasizing induction, positivism, logic and practicality, and paying attention to the philosophical problems of natural science. Mahism, which prevailed in the second half of 19 century and the beginning of the 20th century, is the successor of Comte's positivism and the second generation of modern scientism philosophy. Pragmatism has a theoretical connection with positivism, while logical positivism is the direct descendant of Mahism and the third generation of positivism. From 1950s to 1960s, it was Popper's critical rationalism that once replaced logical positivism. Since 1960s, Popper's critical rationalism has gradually declined, replaced by the historicism of Kuhn, lakatos, Faye Abend and others or the scientific philosophy of historical school.

? Modern western humanistic philosophy originated from rationalism in continental Europe, emphasizing deduction, universality, absoluteness, intuition and concern for human existence. Humanistic philosophy originated from/kloc-0 in the 1920s and was popular in the 1950s. The first generation is the voluntarism of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. The second generation is the philosophy of life of Dilthey, Bergson and others; Another philosophical school closely related to irrational humanism is Husserl phenomenology; The third generation is Heidegger, Sartre's existentialism and Frankfurt School. Among the popular schools of humanistic philosophy in the west today, New Thomas and individualism are quite special.

? After the 1960s, an anti-humanism philosophy school-structuralism appeared in the West.

? In modern western philosophy, western Marxism is closely related to the above two thoughts, which is the product of the combination of various schools of modern western philosophy and Marxist revolutionary theory.