What are the representative bronzes of the Zhou Dynasty?

The smelting and casting methods of bronze craft are closely related to the modeling and decoration methods of bronze wares.

Bronzes are all cast, not struck or chiseled. Casting is to melt raw materials into liquid at high temperature in a melting furnace, and then pour them into the model. When the temperature drops, the copper liquid condenses into the objects needed by people in the model. Dismantle the model to get the finished product.

The site of a copper casting workshop in the late Shang Dynasty was discovered in Anyang, Henan Province (other discoveries will be introduced in the next section). We have a preliminary understanding of bronze smelting and casting since the Zhou Dynasty.

A copper ore, weighing about 17.8 kg, was once found to be malachite (copper oxide) without sulfur, and the ore was mixed with hematite. The melting pot is a kind of red and yellow pottery, which is called "the general's helmet" by the farmers who found it. This furnace can hold 127 kg of molten copper. The heat required for smelting bronze is about 1000 degrees. At such a high temperature, there may be blast furnace equipment and the fuel is charcoal.

The model of bronze ware is made of pottery, which is made up of many pieces, some of which are called outer molds with patterns on them. When it is cast, the outer mold forms the outer surface of the bronze ware. Part of it is an internal mold, which forms the inner surface of bronze sculpture when casting. When the outer mold and the inner mold are assembled together, the gap between the inside and the outside is left to be filled with copper liquid to form the bronze ware to be manufactured. So the concave-convex and left-right of the model should be exactly the opposite of the concave-convex and left-right of the actual object. Many pottery models and "molds" for making them were found in Anyang. The mold imitates the shape of the actual bronze ware and is a standard blank.

It is a general method of casting ancient bronzes by Fan Tao directly turning over the mold. Patterns and characters are cast, not engraved (the characters in the Warring States period were engraved). However, there were many casting methods in Shang Dynasty, such as double casting method, which created hanging beams or chains on bronzes, especially chain-killing casting, which was a great invention in metal smelting technology.

Wax model method; The structure is complex or the decoration is hollow, which makes the pattern design difficult. Usually, the pattern is wrapped in wax mold and wet soft clay, and then it naturally becomes a pattern. Then the burnt wax melts and flows out, and the remaining gaps are filled with copper liquid during casting, that is, molding. It is difficult to confirm whether it was used before the Warring States Period.

When designing the decoration of bronzes, we will know to use the characteristics of casting process to avoid all kinds of difficulties in casting process. There are often prominent ridges on bronze wares in the Yin Dynasty, which are caused by the defect that pottery models can not be completely sealed when assembled, and they are actively used. Moreover, the patterns on each ceramic mold form a complete unit, which avoids the pattern mismatch when the two models are spliced, thus achieving the effect of symmetrical or repeated continuous patterns. The division of decorative surfaces of bronzes is also due to the division of Fan Tao. Therefore, decoration and modeling are closely combined. The rough and simple decorative patterns of bronzes after the Western Zhou Dynasty are also related to the thinning of the walls. During the Warring States period, the simple method of stamping patterns was fully utilized, resulting in complex patterns.

The close relationship between casting methods, modeling and decoration methods of ancient bronzes shows the tradition of combining art and technology in China arts and crafts.

First, the bronze craft in the early Western Zhou Dynasty

The bronzes of the early Western Zhou Dynasty (King Wu, King Cheng, King Kang and Zhao Haoqi) in 1980s and 1990s were similar to those of the Yin Dynasty in shape and decoration. The style characteristics of modeling are obviously similar. However, the inscription is more detailed and records the political activities at that time, which not only facilitates the determination of its age, but also provides materials for historical research. Dafeng in the period of King Wu, Houding when he became king, and Yu Ding by Kang Shi are all famous masterpieces.

The bronzes unearthed in Luoyang and Rongxian of Henan Province have important research value. For example, there are 21 pieces in Kanghou and Mubo Formation, four pieces in Ye Ling Formation (one of which was unearthed in Dantu, Jiangsu Province), four pieces in Fang Ding, six pieces in Qing Formation, six pieces in Qing Formation, and more than 40 pieces in Chen Chen Formation, all of which are bronzes made for nobles to be kings.

Among the bronzes in the early years of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the Great Yu Ding (made in 23 BC of Kang Wang 1056) weighed 153.5 kg and was about one meter high. It is a famous heavy weapon in ancient bronzes. There is an inscription on it. The content is to describe how King Kang rewarded the minister "Yu". There is a "person" in the gift, which is considered by historians as evidence of ancient slavery. The shape of tripod (the outline of tripod belly and the style of tripod foot) was popular in the Western Zhou Dynasty. The pattern of container mouth is the theme of Yin Dynasty, but it has been treated in the way of Western Zhou Dynasty. From Dayu Ding, we can clearly see the evolution of bronze art from Yin Dynasty to Western Zhou Dynasty and Spring and Autumn Period.

Second, the bronze craft in the Western Zhou Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn Period

Among the bronzes of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn Period (about 1200476 BC), the works with mature Western Zhou style are the most representative. Most of these bronzes were made in the late Western Zhou Dynasty (about 9000 BC; 800 years), that is, during the reign of King * * *.

During the Spring and Autumn Period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, local economic and political centers continued to develop. During the Warring States period, a new artistic style was gradually brewing. Bronze ware, which represents the culture of the Zhou Dynasty, was mostly used by the royal family and courtiers in the Western Zhou Dynasty, but rarely in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. It was extremely popular among governors and nationalities, reflecting the trend of political independence among nationalities.

The new changes of bronzes in the Western Zhou Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn Period are as follows: First, the types of vessels have decreased, and wine vessels such as Jue, Qi, Qi and Qi have disappeared, and the most common pots and pans in this era have all appeared new styles.

The tripod is large in shape (such as the Dakeding in the reign of Li Wang), with a narrow mouth and a small abdomen. The silhouette of the tripod belly is flat and square, and the upper half of the tripod foot is decorated with animal faces. The tripod is small in shape (e.g., when * * * * was in power, the tripod was sung). The outline of the tripod belly is close to a semicircle, and the tripod foot is thick up and down, and slightly thin in the middle, like the foot of an animal. The outline of the whole device is a continuous soft curve.

Due to the development of eared pots, they replaced Mao and Shan and became the main bronzes (such as ode pots in the reign of * * *). In terms of eating utensils, cups newly appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty (such as those in the Li Dynasty) and chopsticks newly appeared after the Eastern Zhou Dynasty were gradually replaced.

Another feature of bronzes in this era is that many large bronzes have been produced, such as Dakeding, which is 93 cm high and weighs 20 1.5 kg. The white plate of Polygonum cuspidatum is137.2cm long, 86.5cm wide, 39.5cm high and weighs 215.5kg.. There are often rich and long inscriptions, such as Pan (Shi Qi, 357 words), Mao (Shi Qi, 497 words), the longest bronze inscription, and the inscriptions of Ding, Ding Song and Guo Jizi's white plate, which are of historical and literary value. The casting of large bronzes, the long scroll of inscriptions and the thinning of bronzes all show the progress of smelting and casting technology.

1923 The square pot of standing crane unearthed in Xinzheng, Henan Province, has a flat dragon pattern cover, hollow dragon pattern ears on both sides, two animals under it, and a crane with double lotus petals standing in the center at the mouth of the pot, spreading its wings and flying, with exquisite craftsmanship, reflecting the Spring and Autumn Period.

The artistic characteristics of bronzes in this period, as mentioned above, are mostly soft curves with appropriate proportions, showing new creation. The decorative patterns on bronzes are relatively simple, and there are many, such as crooked patterns, ring patterns and double-headed animal patterns. Others are thick loop lines and vertical scales. There are also realistic dragon patterns. It can be seen that the stolen music pattern and the double-headed beast pattern are the changes of the popular gluttonous pattern and the dragon pattern in the Yin and early Zhou Dynasties, and they are reorganized according to the pattern law. During this period, the pattern structure is more continuous and has simple repetition.

3. Bronze handicrafts and other works of art during the Warring States Period

During the Warring States period, on the basis of local economic development, culture further developed.

There are some records of artistic activities and legends in ancient books, which not only show the ancient people's understanding of art, but also reveal some actual situations. Han Feizi records that a painter spent three years painting for Zhou Jun? (hey? ), with strong light, you can see "dragons, snakes, animals, chariots and horses, everything." Obviously, this is the main theme of decorative arts in the Warring States period. Qu Yuan, a great patriotic poet in ancient times, once saw the fantastic mythological pictures of "heaven and earth, mountains and rivers, gods, strange wonders, strange oranges and ancient saints" in the murals of the Temple of the King of Chu and the Temple of the Communist Youth. Lu Ban, a famous craftsman in ancient times, drew an image of "I feel careful" with his feet, which he knew he was ugly and didn't want people to see. The painter of the State of Qi worshiped the king and painted a nine-stage platform for the king of Qi, so he could not go home. He painted a portrait of his wife to comfort himself, so that his wife was taken away by the king of Qi. For another example, Song found a group of painters, all of whom were "obedient, licking pens and ink", and only one person was arrogant and "naked". Known as a real painter. Qi thinks it is difficult to draw familiar dogs and horses, and it is also difficult to draw ghosts that people have never seen before. This shows the development of painting art at that time.

A large number of concrete materials of art in the Warring States period are archaeological discoveries in the past 50 years. For example, the physical objects unearthed in the following places are of great significance to the study of art history: Liyu Village, Hunyuan, Shanxi; Hebei Yixian and Tangshan; Huixian and Jixian in Henan; Luoyang Jincun; Linyi, Shandong; Shouxian County, Anhui Province; Changsha, Hunan, etc. Graves have been found in these places, or architectural remains have been left. Bronzes are the most unearthed, but there are also tiles, jade, lacquerware and pottery. The study of art in the Warring States period is especially helpful to the excavation of Tangshan, Huixian, Luoyang and Changsha, Hunan after the founding of the People's Republic of China. These excavations provide valuable materials with regional representation and artistic value, and provide reliable knowledge about the life and culture of the ancients.

The artworks in the Warring States period can be roughly divided into four categories: A, bronze handicrafts (with gold and silver inlays and bronze mirrors), B, sculpture artworks, C, painting artworks, D, other handicrafts, lacquerware, jade, pottery and so on.

Bronzes include Zhao unearthed in Hunyuan, Tangshan unearthed in Hebei, Huixian unearthed, South Korea unearthed in Jincun, Luoyang, and Chu unearthed in Shouxian, Anhui, and Qihe unearthed in various places, some of which are in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and the changes of time and regional style need to be verified. But there is obviously a trend of * * *. Bronzes have similar new shapes and similar decorative themes and methods. The decorative part is either a three-dimensional animal sculpture that tends to be realistic, or it is covered with organizations that tend to be complex and overlapping. Decorative pattern is the most common one, but there are many different ways to deal with it. In casting technology, we can use wax mold to cast through-carving patterns, and use simple pressing method to print the pattern on the original mold (not the model) of bronze ware, so that the composition of copper and tin has a new proportion.

Bronzes in the Warring States period were magnificent in style and imposing. The gorgeous style of bronzes in the Warring States period was especially manifested in gold and silver inlays. Metals such as gold, silver and copper, or minerals such as turquoise, crystal, jade and agate are filled or embedded in the gaps of bronzes, resulting in multicolor effects. The gold, silver and gold inlaid in Jincun Village and Guwei Village of Huixian County is a treasure in the history of arts and crafts in China.

Bronze mirrors in the Warring States Period were found in Chu State and its adjacent areas. Round bronze mirrors (a few are square) can be polished on the front, and the back has organized and complete patterns. These patterns are often Yun Leiwen or fantasy animal patterns that rotate vertically on dense shading, and the upper and lower layers show a contrast effect due to different reflections. The bronze mirror pattern in the Warring States Period is one of the typical patterns in China. In order to make the mirror smooth, a small amount of lead was often added to the copper frame alloy in the Warring States period, so the pattern on the back was particularly neat and clear (Figure 37).

Sculpture works in the Warring States period obviously have the ability to express trends and begin to depict facial expressions. The dynamic performance of the wooden figurines unearthed in Changsha (the earliest known wooden figurines, Figure 35) and the bronze statue of the female scholar Hu in Luoyang (Figure 34) is very subtle. As a known early sculpture art, this is an extraordinary attempt. Other decorative sculptures, such as monkey-shaped and parrot-shaped bronze ornaments unearthed in Changzhi Valley, Shanxi Province, bronze figures sitting and kneeling unearthed in Jincun Village, Luoyang, and a pair of frogs about to jump into the water washed with gold and silver moire and animal patterns, all of these works show that the movements of animals are very real. The gold and silver animal heads and dragon heads unearthed in Jincun, Luoyang, and the animal head-shaped ornaments unearthed in Huixian all used exaggerated techniques. And good at using different colors of metal for decoration, and get vivid results.

Among the paintings in the Warring States period, the silk painting unearthed in Changsha is the most important, and it is the first known painting.

The content of the painting, according to Guo Moruo's textual research, is a kind and beautiful woman who prayed for the phoenix bird to win in the struggle between the phoenix bird symbolizing kindness and peace and the one-legged bird symbolizing evil disaster. The beautiful silhouette of that woman is obviously very eye-catching. Other works that can help us understand the artistic level of painting in the Warring States period include the bronze pot with the pattern of land and water attack in the Forbidden City, the bronze sword of Le Yan hunting unearthed in Huixian, the musical performance, archery, court scenes and nine battle scenes in the bronze sword of land and water attack unearthed in Jixian. Painted lacquer unearthed in Changsha is lined with trees, Mercedes-Benz cars and horses, hunting and other scenes. It shows the composition ability of painting art at that time. Other scenes, such as gold and silver hunting pots, chariots and animals on bronze medals, also showed the general level of painting at that time to some extent.

In the field of arts and crafts, lacquerware technology has made remarkable achievements. In addition to the lacquer cases of the characters in the above-mentioned painting stories, the lacquer shield, bird plate, three-phoenix plate, two-phoenix plate, painted lacquer painting and swab unearthed in Changsha are the earliest existing complete works. It is very common to use flax and bamboo as tires, with uniform and clean paint and bright colors (red and black). The pattern composition is extremely ingenious, the lines are as thin as hair, or symmetrical and thick, and the description technology has reached a high level. Lacquer patterns and bronze mirror patterns in the Warring States period have the same important position.

Jade craft also has excellent performance. Yu Pei, jade wall and various animal-shaped jade ornaments unearthed in Jincun, Luoyang, and Dayu sulfide, carved gold inlaid jade, silver belt hook, jade parrot unearthed in Huixian, etc., are excellent products in ancient jade crafts. The discovery of semi-finished products of Jincun jade craft can help us understand its making process. But the ancient jade-making technology is still a mystery to us. During the Warring States period, some basic rules of pattern modeling were embodied in jade crafts.

Pottery in the Warring States period has its own characteristics in modeling, some of which are modeled after bronze, just like bronze. However, the works with remarkable characteristics in pottery have not yet been found. Before the Warring States Period, a pair of hard pottery beans with gray-green glaze were found in Luoyang. How to inherit and develop them in the Warring States period is still unknown. Painted pottery in the Warring States period is a unique creation. Painted pottery was found near Zhaogu District of Huixian County and Shaogou of Luoyang, especially the latter, which was very beautiful and lively with red and black colors on a white background. In addition, the surface of pottery in the two places is also polished with dark decorative patterns, mostly simple geometric patterns with their own characteristics.

Decorative patterns in the Warring States period were popular in bronzes, gold and silver misplacements, lacquerware, jade articles and pottery, that is, a continuous belt, winding and changing back and forth, accompanied by small circular vortices, giving full play to the effect of contrast between reality and reality and the sense of direction and movement of curves. Its materials are dragons, snakes, phoenixes, clouds, bamboo slips, or evolved into pure patterns. The treatment methods are also different due to different production materials, technical conditions and decorative parts. However, this way of composing music is a characteristic of the Warring States period.