Prussian road in Prussia

Among the German states, Prussia is the only powerful country that can compete with Austria.

Prussia is one of the most extensive, powerful and important countries in Germany, which has been influencing the whole history of Germany since17th century.

Prussian countries developed through territorial expansion.

The ruler of Prussia is the Hornsauron family. As early as the 10 century, the Hornsoren family ruled a castle on the Soren Mountain in northern Switzerland. By the 12 century, the representative of this family had become the Duke of Nuremberg. 14 15, Frederick I, the representative of this family, won the title of Brandenburg territory and elector from the holy Roman emperor. Brandenburg is located in the northeast border of Germany, and often has wars with neighboring Slavs, so its army has gained rich military experience. During the Reformation in16th century, the elector of Brandenburg accepted Lutheranism and seized the land property of the Catholic Church, so Brandenburg became an important Protestant country. At the beginning of16th century, the elector John sigismund won the Duke of Klevoz, Marquez and Marquis of Ravensburg in the lower reaches of the Rhine River in the name of his wife. 16 18, the elector became a vassal state of Poland-East Prussia, so he jumped from Brandenburg to Brandenburg-Prussia. In order to obtain East Prussia, he did not hesitate to pay tribute to the Polish king. At the end of the Thirty Years' War (1648), the democratically elected emperor friedrich wilhelm annexed several small territories in Pomerania, Weixi River Basin and Elbe River Basin in the east. In the same year, he took advantage of the new Polish king's accession to the throne to get rid of the vassal relationship with Poland. By 170 1, Frederick I, the elector, won the title of king of Prussia from the holy Roman emperor on the condition that he participated in the Spanish war of succession to the throne. Thus, Brandenburg, the elector of Prussia, became the king of Prussia. Prussia seized Silesia from Austria in the Seven Years' War. 1772 Poland was divided into West Prussia (except Gdansk and Torun), thus connecting Brandenburg with East Prussia. The original territory of Brandenburg was only 237,565,438+0 square kilometers. By 1 772, the territory of Prussia had increased to 1 9489 1 square kilometer.

The rise of Prussia has its economic premise. It is on the basis of economic prosperity after17th century that this country can become powerful. Prussia's economic prosperity has two reasons:

First, Brandenburg's geographical location is conducive to economic development. Although the transfer of trade routes from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic coast caused the decline and stagnation of the entire German economy, it promoted the economic prosperity of Brandenburg. With the transfer of trade routes, some areas in South Germany and China and Germany have to look for trade exports along the North Sea coast, and Brandenburg has become the only way.

Secondly, the policy of protecting industry and commerce promoted Prussia's economic development. In order to increase fiscal revenue, industrial and commercial development was encouraged as early as the reign of Friedrich William (1640- 1688). 1685 After the French government cancelled the edict of Nantes, Huguenots fled abroad in succession. Friedrich William ordered the reception of French exiles and gave them preferential treatment. By 1703, about 20000 French Huguenots and 13000 Protestants from other countries had settled in Landenburg. They are mainly skilled craftsmen and capable businessmen, so they bring capital and technology here. These new immigrants set up wool and cotton weaving handicraft workshops to process silk and produce velvet, candles, ribbons and other articles. However, under the condition of serfdom, the source of free labor is very limited. In order to solve the labor problem, Friedrich William used criminals, prisoners, vagrants and beggars as the labor force of the new industry. His grandson Frederick William I (17 13- 1740) continued to carry out this policy, and he especially rewarded military industries, such as wool spinning industry.

Prussia grew up from small to large, from weak to strong, also because it pursued a militaristic policy. The great elector Friedrich William ascended the throne in the Thirty Years' War, and Brandenburg was occupied by Swedish troops. He personally realized that the army is the foundation of the country, so he decided to learn from Sweden and establish a standing army. 1653 reached an agreement with the nobles of Yongke: Yongke was allowed to exercise police power and judicial power over farmers; Juncker agreed to levy a "military tax" on the elected emperor in order to establish a standing army. In this agreement, the elector also agreed to let Juncker serve as a standing army officer. Since then, Juncker has forged an indissoluble bond with the Prussian army. Prussia has become a powerful military machine since Friedrich William. During the reign of Frederick William I, the number of Prussian troops almost doubled, reaching 85,460, equivalent to 4% of the national population. In Europe, the population of Prussia ranks 13, but the army ranks fourth, and 3/4 of the national fiscal revenue is spent on the military. The army follows blindly. Junk-born officers can whip soldiers at will, and some soldiers often commit suicide because of the abuse of officers. Usually, the military discipline is very strict. When there is a war, the officers indulge the soldiers in burning, killing and looting.

Prussian militarism is closely related to the Junk class. The Yongke class actively supports the militaristic policy, because this policy has brought them many benefits: First, they can acquire new real estate through militarism and aggression and expansion. Second, with the expansion of national leaders, the administrative agencies have also expanded, which provides more opportunities for Yong Ke's children to become officials. Third, strengthening military strength has correspondingly increased the number of officers, thus providing more officer positions for Yong Ke's children.

The Yongke class has strong economic strength, and their economic strength is based on serfdom. The second edition of German serfdom is the most prominent in Prussia. From16th century to the first half of17th century, farmers in Prussia, especially those in the east of Elbe River, became a combination of agriculture and animal husbandry. They are completely tied to the land and forced to provide labor rent and service rent to the landlord. Serfs have to work on the Lord's land 4-6 days a week. 17 10 An official wrote in the report: "Land rent, labor, taxes, stationing troops and tribute are increasing, and it is difficult for the people to maintain; The serfs were poor, and they became poorer and poorer. As always, in the end, they had no choice but to run away ... "

Prussia's bureaucratic system was also established by the strength of the army. Originally, the power of taxation in some parts of Prussia was in the hands of hierarchical conferences in various territories, but Frederick and William relied on force to levy taxes. He once sent an army to force Kravitz and Mark to accept new taxes under the threat of force. Then, he turned this new tax into a de facto permanent tax, thus depriving the hierarchical meeting of the most important authority-the right to collect taxes. Finally, because local taxes were mainly used for military expenses, he handed them over to the military. To this end, he set up a military headquarters, a military finance department, and sent officers to various places to collect taxes. These officials used military orders to carry out their work, and soon expanded their scope of work to the whole economic field, and crowded out the original administrative institutions in various places, including local conferences and municipal self-government authorities. Friedrich William established a unified bureaucratic administrative system through the military headquarters, and the soul of this system is the army. 1723, he established the "General Administration of Finance, Military and Royal Territory" directly under the king as the highest administrative organ for managing the country. The "sergeant king" manages the country by managing the army, thinking that an autocratic monarch knows best what his people need. He once said, "I am the monarch, so I can do whatever I want." Under his rule, Prussia developed into a highly centralized autocratic country, and the discipline and hierarchy of military camps dominated the whole social life. By this time, the so-called "Prussian spirit" has been fully formed, and its formula is absolutism plus militarism. Germany is a country divided by ethnic groups. The Holy Roman Empire is a loose alliance of princes in name only, with thousands of states at most. After hundreds of years of hard struggle, Germany finally achieved its first national reunification by Prussia in 187 1. However, due to the failure of the two world wars, the country split again and was not reunified until 1990. It can be said that a German history is a history of national division, unity, re-division and reunification. In this sense, ethnic issues (or seeking national reunification) have become a main thread throughout Germany's modern history. Why is the rise of Prussia of historical significance? Because the great cause of German reunification was finally completed by Prussia. Then, in central Europe surrounded by a big country, a Germany with a large number of vassals and Prussia with a small population and territory, by what kind of "divine power" did it gradually grow from weak to strong and develop step by step?

16 18- 1648, feudal monarchs in continental Europe launched a protracted "Thirty Years' War" on German soil. This war made the British bourgeoisie escape the intervention of European feudal monarchs and win, but it made Germany completely decline. As the main battlefield of this cruel war, five-sixths of villages in Germany were destroyed and the population decreased by more than one-third. Farmers became poor and struggled with hunger and death. After the war, Germany was still a "country" in name only, fragmented and broken, with vassals everywhere. According to the Peace Treaty of Westphalia, France and Sweden, the victors of the Thirty Years' War, have the right to guarantee the internal affairs and diplomatic independence of the German states, and each state has the full right to sign treaties with any European country. In this way, the division of Germany was finally determined. To what extent Germany was divided after the Thirty Years' War, there is such a set of data to illustrate the problem: at that time, Germany had 360 independent countries and 1 500 semi-independent territories. Most states are small. In Westphalia, for example, each state has an average of just over 20 square miles. However, the monarchs of all these countries are very conceited. No matter how big or small a country is, it has established its own set of autocratic systems, sound state institutions and armed forces. An army sometimes consists of only 12 soldiers.

In this unprecedented situation of ethnic division, Prussia, with orderly social order, authoritative central government, efficient government and effective army, is very different. It should be noted that in modern Europe, the rise of any country is not a gentle and graceful journey. In that turbulent era when the blood flowed like a river and the law of the jungle prevailed, Prussia was destined to use with fire and sword to pave the way for its king from the beginning. (a) the pursuit of military politics, attach importance to national defense construction.

The emerging kingdom of Prussia is a small country with a weak family background. It was dubbed by the great powers as "a clay pot in a tin can pile", and it was in danger of national ruin and death at any time. Therefore, since the founding of 170 1 Prussia, the rulers of past dynasties have taken strengthening the army as their main means of survival and development.

Prussia's militarism is very prominent. Frederick II ascended the throne in 1740. Under his iron-fisted rule for more than 20 years, the number of Pu Jun's army has soared from 70,000 to 200,000, accounting for 9.4% of the national population, and the annual military expenditure accounts for 4/5 of the total government budget. At that time, Prussia ranked 10 in area and 13 in population in Europe, but its army ranked fourth in Europe. This number has increased to 235,000 in William II, the successor of Frederick II. Someone once described Prussia's militarism like this: "For other countries, the country has an army; For Prussia, the army owns a country. "

Prussia's militaristic nature is so distinct that its belligerence directly contributed to the introduction of Bismarck's "iron-blooded policy" and then became the cause of the two world wars.

(2) Yong Ke has mastered the state power for a long time and has become the only class that can lead the great cause of national reunification.

Prussia is a brave country, where the strength of the civil class is very weak. On the one hand, due to the destruction of the war, the development of workshops and handicrafts is slow, accounting for less than 10% of the total national economy, and their market largely depends on the living consumption of feudal princes and nobles and the expenditure of government troops; On the other hand, when Britain and France had overcome the traditional shackles of guilds as early as the end of 18, German handicrafts were still controlled by guilds, ancient laws and regulations were still strictly enforced, and all paths that could promote competition and innovation were ruthlessly blocked by feudal shackles. This economic dependence and the inherent deficiency of its own strength have caused the German bourgeoisie to be timid and servile to feudal forces politically.

Farmers are also unable to resist the powerful feudal monarchy. 1625, a great peasant war broke out in Germany, but it was finally brutally suppressed. The thirty years' war completely destroyed the last resistance of the peasant class, and the landlord became the sole owner of the countryside. The serfdom that forced farmers to work hard became a common system in Germany, especially in Prussia.

Marx and Engels had intended to unite the scattered workers' groups in Germany into a national political organization to promote the revolution. But this condition does not exist in Germany, which is economically backward and politically dispersed. At that time, the German working class was still immature. Most of them are craftsmen, and they basically follow the bourgeoisie. Moreover, due to the strong feudal forces and the betrayal of bourgeois liberals, the 1848 revolution was suppressed throughout Germany, and the workers' movement was at a low ebb for a long time.

Because the bourgeoisie and peasants are unable to complete the great cause of German reunification, and the weak proletariat is far from mature politically, this task has historically fallen on the Prussian aristocratic landlord class (Juncker).

(3) the kingship is strong, and at the same time, capitalism is developed on the premise of retaining Yong Ke's feudal privileges.

Yongke economy holds the lifeblood of the national economy. Yongke landlords monopolize grain exports and are also exempt from export duties. In the Prussian army, Junk occupied all the officer positions. The serfdom in Prussia is different from the early serfdom, which is the result of the development of commodity production. As grain and various agricultural products become more and more important commodities and prices rise, agricultural production becomes profitable. So Yongke landlords began to seize farmers' land and merge it into Datianzhuang to develop capitalist commodity production for the market.

Serfdom reflects only one aspect of the Prussian state system, and its deeper significance lies in highlighting the highly centralized monarchy in Prussia. The guarantee of this political system is essential for the rise of any modern European power. Russia under Peter I, France under Louis XIV and Prussia are all the same.

1848 after the failure of the revolution, Prussia did not restore the pure monarchy like Austria, but maintained the alliance between the landlord class and the big bourgeoisie. The nobles still maintained a dominant position in this alliance, and the king still had supreme authority. Although there is a parliament, the upper house (the upper house) is composed of dignitaries appointed by the king, and the lower house (the lower house) guarantees the majority status of the nobility and the big bourgeoisie by means of the unequal three-level electoral system. Therefore, the autocratic monarchy in Prussia can be continued and even consolidated under the guise of democracy. (A) serfdom strengthened Juncker's political dominance.

From the perspective of social development, serfdom is a barbaric and backward mode of production. Serfs not only serve landlords free of charge, but also bring their own livestock and farm tools. They are arbitrarily deprived of their property and have no personal freedom at all. They were imprisoned in the landlord's grange and were not allowed to migrate. It is generally believed that the existence of serfdom will seriously hinder the development of productive forces. However, if we put this system in the historical background of Prussia's rise, we will find something unusual. Today, people can criticize Frederick II for "strengthening the autocratic system of military landlords and promoting slave education to his subjects" in Prussia. This is a retrogression in history, but it ignores the most basic fact, that is, the pillar of the Prussian kingdom at that time was nobles, and the strength of nobles was to occupy vast real estate and exploit serfs. From this point of view, without serfdom, there would be no brave, and without the support of brave, the powerful Prussian monarchy would only be empty talk.

(two) the implementation of mercantilism, focusing on economic development.

The main rivers sailing northward in Germany, such as Rhine, Weser, Elbe and Oder, all flow through Brandenburg, which gives Prussia a favorable geographical position for economic development. The rulers of Prussia also regarded industry and commerce as important wealth. They dug canals, built bridges and roads, unified the monetary system and implemented measures to protect tariffs to develop the economy. At the same time, Prussia also pays attention to exploring overseas markets. 1788 has exported pig iron 10 1000 tons to Britain. By 1980s, Prussia had established three trading companies: Eastern Mediterranean Trading Company, China Trading Company and Bangladeshi Trading Company.

(3) Encourage immigrants and accommodate Protestants.

Martin Luther's religious reform and the victory of the German Protestant Union in the Thirty Years' War made Prussia a a paradise on earth for Europe to escape religious persecution at that time. By 1703, about 20,000 Huguenots had moved from France to Brandenburg to settle down, accounting for 1/9 of the urban residents at that time. These people are all skilled craftsmen or businessmen with certain capital. As a result, French industry and commerce suffered serious losses, while Prussia benefited from it. In addition to French immigrants, immigrants from other countries also poured in. According to statistics, by 1740, the population of Prussia was 2.4 million, of which only foreign immigrants accounted for 1/4, reaching 600,000. Brandenburg was the hardest hit area in the Thirty Years' War. Immigrants injected great vitality into its revival, which enabled Prussia to achieve economic recovery and take-off earlier than other German states.

(4) Rulers have a strong sense of urgency and are not prone to corruption.

Different from the luxury prevailing in the European royal family at that time, several generations of Prussian rulers lived a puritanical frugal life that was almost self-inflicted in order to save valuable military and government expenses. For example, when Friedrich II's father, William I (who later shared the same name), was in power, the meanness of Prussian diplomatic envoys was "well known" in Europe. The distinguished members of the royal family, whether they are princes or princesses, even princesses or even the king himself, are poor in cooking and food, almost to the point where they can't eat. Because frugality has reached the point of meanness, people call William I "the beggar king" behind his back.

His successor Frederick II was even more tenacious and hardworking than Gou Jian, the king of Yue. He devoted himself to diligence with extraordinary energy and slept only four hours a day. You must ask yourself every detail. He also called on the people to be diligent and thrifty, set an example, and absolutely prohibited the luxury and ostentation of the imperial court. He usually only wears military clothes, and he has only one dress in his life. Twenty years after the death of Frederick II, Napoleon defeated Pu Jun's army in Jena and went to the tomb of Frederick II in Potsdam. Napoleon pointed his whip at the generals under the tombstone and said, "If he were alive, we wouldn't be standing here today." .

(5) The ruling class can conform to the trend and push forward various reforms in time.

The ruling class in Prussia is not as conservative as the feudal nobles in other European countries and stubbornly refuses all changes. They are good at sizing up the situation, pushing forward the reform from top to bottom (forced by the situation, of course), and firmly controlling the leading power of the reform, so as to conform to the historical trend and avoid relegating themselves to power. Different from the reform of Habsburg dynasty in Austria, most kings in Prussia were able to persist in the reform rather than give up the achievements of their predecessors, which not only ensured the consistency of Prussia's major policies, but also kept the whole country upward all the time.

Take the reform of serfdom in Prussia as an example. During the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia suffered successive defeats and almost perished. The fiasco of the war and the signing of the humiliating peace treaty made Prussians more and more aware of the decline of serfdom society from the contest between feudal Germany and capitalist France. A group of people of insight, deeply influenced by the bourgeois ideology of Britain and France, loudly called for the reform of the old feudal order. In this grim situation, Prussia began a difficult reform. 1807 10 Baron Stein, who is in charge of state affairs, promulgated the October Decree to liberate farmers, which finally made Prussia take a big step on the road from feudal serfdom to bourgeois society.

However, the first round of reform was not thorough, which made the bourgeois liberals in Prussia very dissatisfied with Juncker's continued possession of a large amount of land and manpower, so they once turned to * * * to oppose the monarchy in the European 1848 revolution. In order to consolidate political power, collude with each other and coordinate interests, the government of Yongke landlord class promulgated the Law on Adjusting the Relationship between Landlords and Peasants in March 1850, thus finally completing the reform of serfdom that began in 1807. As a result of the reform, the capitalists got the cheap labor necessary for the development of large industries, and the bourgeoisie was satisfied with the monarchy; By collecting high ransom from serfs, a large number of ceded land and wealth quickly accumulated in Juncker's hands, and the landlord class also made a windfall; Only farmers went bankrupt, lost their land and livestock, became semi-proletarians in large numbers, and then became hired workers in capitalist factories and Yongke Manor. This "experience" of the Prussian ruling class provided an excellent "model" for the later 186 1 Russian serfdom reform.

(VI) The awakening of German national consciousness

The rise of Prussia, the most important thing is the human factor. Since16th century, due to division, Germany is not a political entity in the eyes of Europeans, and the German nation is also regarded as a lifeless nation. It is this long-term humiliation and contempt that inspired the Germans' enterprising spirit of self-improvement and internalized it as the source of strength for Prussia's rise.

It is precisely because of this spirit that they are urged to learn advanced things from foreign countries and vigorously set up education. In this respect, the achievements of the Kingdom of Prussia are most praised by later generations-in order to carry out nationalist education, Prussia began to implement compulsory national education from 17 17, becoming the first country in the world to implement compulsory education. It is worth noting that in 1763, Frederick II promulgated school rules, stipulating that children aged 5- 14 must go to school, and appointed veterans as principals to conduct paramilitary training for students. All these have laid a solid foundation for Prussia to form a disciplined and high-quality army in the future. After Humboldt became the highest education director in Prussia in 1809, the reform of education system became the cornerstone of Germany's scientific and cultural development in the next 200 years. The University of Berlin, founded in 18 10, was the first new university in the world, which influenced the development of higher education in various countries in the 19 century.

In Prussia, military service and education are regarded as two basic obligations of citizens. According to statistics, among the major European countries in the second half of the19th century, Germany has the lowest illiteracy rate, and Germans should be ahead of European countries in reading, writing, calculation and practical application of scientific theories.

(7) Be good at using diplomatic means to maximize national interests.

Frederick II, the early king of Prussia, and Bismarck, the later prime minister, were recognized as one of the smartest diplomats at that time. Although these people can be described as "treacherous, greedy and treacherous" in order to achieve their own goals, it is undeniable that without their superb diplomatic skills, it is hard to imagine that Prussia can survive and develop in Europe surrounded by foreign powers.

Uniting allies and isolating opponents is Prussia's most basic diplomatic strategy. For example, the customs union, which began to operate in 1834, is a great achievement of Prussia-it not only promoted the economic development, but also brought the whole Germany closer to it politically, which not only enhanced Prussia's ability and determination to lead Germany's reunification, but also gradually pushed Austria out of Germany politically and economically, killing two birds with one stone. A customs union is somewhat similar to the EU established by 1993. Through political and economic integration, all countries will eventually move towards a unified country. Prussia is good at netting German states. As members of the customs union, these countries get material benefits from it. In addition, their development level has not even reached the level close to Prussia, so Prussia has become the center of the bourgeoisie in these States. These bourgeoisie regard Prussia as their economic pioneer and future political backer. In this way, Prussia began to leap to the leading position in Germany.

(8) The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars were driven by external forces.

The military victory of 1805- 1807 made Napoleon occupy and control most of Germany, and Prussia became a vassal of France against Britain and Russia. In order to safeguard and realize the interests of the French big bourgeoisie, Napoleon carried out military occupation, political rule and diplomatic manipulation of Prussia, and at the same time carried out a series of local reforms in accordance with the model of the French bourgeois revolution. For example, cancel the privileges of the church and nobility; Abolish serfdom and relieve farmers of their feudal obligations to landlords; Get rid of ancient laws and regulations, cancel the rules and regulations, and so on.

Although Napoleon's bourgeois reform in Germany failed to persist because of frequent wars and strong obstruction by anti-French forces, it had a far-reaching impact on the future development of Germany. It is precisely because Napoleon's violence eliminated the feudal separatist forces and fostered the growing capitalist relationship that Germany has a truly modern industry and the German national bourgeoisie has developed by leaps and bounds. Therefore, Engels once said: "The creator of the German bourgeoisie is Napoleon ... he is the representative of the German revolution, the disseminator of revolutionary principles, and the grave digger of the feudal old society."

To sum up, it is through such a special development path that Prussia rose rapidly in a short period of 100 years and completed the unification of modern Germany, so Prussia has sometimes become synonymous with German spirit and culture. In a sense, the evolutionary history of a "Prussian Road" constantly gives us warnings and inspirations.