The development track of China history

Feudal society-Western Zhou Dynasty, Spring and Autumn Period

In view of the lack of ancient history, the discussion began in the Western Zhou Dynasty. In the early years of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the Zhou royal family "enfeoffed a large number of imperial relatives in order to control them." First, the emperor enfeoffed the princes, and then the princes enfeoffed the doctors, which gradually expanded. "In essence, this feudalism" is to cultivate armed groups ". As a farming tribe, these groups of agricultural reclamation troops "choose transportation and military strategic places, build cities by enclosure and store them for a long time." At the same time of farming and self-support, many military strongholds were established. On the one hand, "this way" is convenient to deal with the reaction of the old Yin dynasty, on the other hand, it is also to defend against the intrusion of nomadic people around it. "It can be seen that the' feudalism' of the Western Zhou Dynasty is not what we originally imagined, but a process of expanding territory and defending the country.

Knowing this "feudal" process, we can see that "within four letters, is it the king's soil, the wool that eats the soil, and the king's minister?" It is by no means an idea, nor is it autocratic oppression, but an inevitable product of collective reclamation. Land belongs to feudal nobles and the state, and "well field system" is the management method of public cultivated land. "People, 20 years from the field, 60 years back to the field." If you are over 70, you will be able to support yourself. "This is an average production economy and a government-managed economy of' production for the people'. This is the "feudal society" of the Western Zhou Dynasty. Feudalism is an inherent term in China, not the so-called "feudal society" in the Western Middle Ages. )

Please be sure to appreciate the essence of feudalism. We are deeply influenced by education, and our minds are full of autocratic exploitation, separatism, oppression and resistance, which impairs our ability to correctly understand the nature of certain situations and affairs.

Later, science and technology, population and productivity developed. "The nobility allowed farmers to increase cultivated land according to their own abilities, but they did not go through the formalities of returning farmland. Nobles only accept mu's rent Over time, the ownership of the land was actually passed on to the farmers invisibly. " Since the change of land ownership, the mining field system has gradually collapsed. "The destruction of the mine field system will inevitably promote the collapse of the feudal system."

We used a lot of space to describe the formation and demise of feudal society. First of all, it is the political and cultural origin of China. "Infinite power will inevitably appear in the darkness, inducing its future and regulating its direction." Second, we can try our best to abandon the ideas inherent in our minds and re-understand the actual situation at that time. Third, it helps to understand the so-called "retro" of Confucianism in past dynasties. It is not that they are stupid, narrow-minded and do not know how to keep pace with the times. In fact, it is the ideal of establishing a highly state-controlled economy and a harmonious society. This is another story.

Wandering Society-Warring States Period

The feudal system collapsed, and the hereditary political privilege of the upper class in the Spring and Autumn Period was abolished in the Warring States Period. The average production economy restricted by the lower ordinary class, agriculture, industry and commerce was also liberated during the Warring States period. "Free economy and civilian scholars, two new forces, have emerged. Free economy goes to the lower level, and civilian academics go to the upper level. "From the end of the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, these two forces formed a new social group-You family.

The reason why tourists can swim is because the cultural origins of various vassal countries are the same, and they are all agricultural cultures. Second, "they can't forget the historical concept that feudalism began with only one Lord and the highest center." "Everyone has the concept of' one world' and does not value the limited loyalty to the regional family. Therefore, China has been unified since the Qin and Han Dynasties. " Starting from the humanistic spirit of history, society and cosmopolitanism, I try to lead the political development with academic thoughts. "I always have a positive attitude towards political ideals, but I often have a negative attitude towards real politics." If I go out, I will take part in politics, and then I will give lectures and write. This meaning will be passed on to future generations, hoping that China will become a standard intellectual.

It is tourists who bring cultures of different countries closer together, further strengthening the concept of world unity.

(I'll say a few more words here. Huang Renyu concluded in "The Great History of China" that there are three internal driving forces for China's reunification: First, the Yellow River is flooding, and no unified government can make overall plans for its management. Second, natural disasters occur frequently in China, and a small divided country cannot resist them independently. Third, the nomadic people in the north are powerful, and there is no unified government to compete. This is an argument that uses results to explain the reasons and cannot stand scrutiny. )

Scholars in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period expounded the humanistic ideal of China intellectuals: "Politics is not to accommodate and cope with reality, but as a positive ideal means and tool for the whole humanistic system." Confucius said in the Analects of Confucius: "Filial piety is filial piety, brotherhood, politics, politics, and ridicule it as politics." In other words, family life is political life, and family ideal is political ideal. "University" is consistent in sincerity, integrity, self-cultivation, keeping the family in order, governing the country and leveling the world, and the final result is "one is self-cultivation-oriented". Zhuang Zhou's "inner sage is honesty, integrity, self-cultivation and family harmony", while the outer king is ruling the country and leveling the world.

"All men are created equal, and everyone can be a saint. The highest ideal of governing the country and leveling the world is to make everyone a saint. " "Official career is just to help others do this, and self-cultivation means to finish it first (to be an ideal person)" and "to make everyone reach the highest level of an ideal cultural life".

Scholars at this stage are bold and confident in spirit, open-minded and ambitious. Confucianism and Mohism set up ideals for large social groups, and pursued them with religious enthusiasm knowing that they could not do it. This is the spirit of the Warring States Period.

Nirvana in fire-From the Western Han Dynasty to the Middle Eastern Han Dynasty

Qin and Han dynasties were unified, and feudal nobles were eliminated. There are legal procedures for entering official positions. Imperial academy was established by Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty, the highest was A Lang, and the lowest was an official who worked in the local area for several years. He was elected as Lang. Lang worked as a bodyguard for a period of time and was assigned to be an official in various places. These officials gradually formed a group of civilian scholars.

Compared with the Warring States period, the channels for scholars to enter the government and their own behaviors were standardized. Because of the unified government, scholars have nowhere to go, and they can no longer worship Qing Xiang as they did during the Warring States Period. Scholars can only follow the route prescribed by the government and go their own way step by step. But because of this, with this strict "organization law", the Western Han Dynasty gradually became a civilian scholar and a literati government.

"As far as the origins of commoners are concerned, a small part of them are descendants of the aristocratic class, and most of them are bred by the simple life of farming and reading in rural society. They are born with an inherent tendency to pay attention to fighting for political rights and suppress the free economy that leads to inequality between the rich and the poor. " Therefore, the history of China has embarked on the road of politics guiding society, not shaking politics with society, controlling economy with ideals, and not adjusting ideals with economy. "

At this time, participating in politics through imperial academy's official qualification is a political system, and there is no fixed class in society.

Compared with the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the commoners in the Western Han Dynasty came from the lower classes. They were sincere, steady, modest and practical. With the help of deified Confucius, they asked the king to respect them as leaders, leveling the status of scholars and kings.

The group of scholars mastered the political power and formed the guiding force of the social center at that time. Wang Mang is the strongest voice of this group of scholars, trying to completely transform the real society with completely academic ideals. As a result of the tragic failure, this kind of revolution has never happened in China since then, and it was replaced by moderate improvement. However, transforming society and controlling economy with political ideals has become a way for intellectuals to rule the world.

After the failure of Wang Mang's New Deal, the courage and enthusiasm of intellectuals in the Eastern Han Dynasty to use politics to create an ideal society and realize an ideal life shrank even more. Instead, he turned his attention to private life, from Confucianism to individualism, and was closed by family and literati society. Under individualism, they gradually lost their attention to the mass groups.

Family Society —— Middle and Late Eastern Han Dynasty to Sui Dynasty

But from the middle of the Eastern Han Dynasty, "finally, a fixed class gradually formed. One is that education is not popular, and the other is that books are not easy to circulate. Although the law does not give a family special rights, as long as the family inherits its studies, its special political rights will be inherited in disguise. So after the Eastern Han Dynasty, the so-called aristocratic families appeared.

The central government lost control and the people were not protected, so they had to cling to their families and form private contracts with each other. "People have changed from national citizens to private families with family status. So there is a gap between the government and society. The government is not based on the support of citizens, but only on aristocratic families. " Therefore, the aristocratic family hijacked the government.

Aristocratic families have made China unstable several times, and it is impossible to form a strong government. Although the government is supported by family forces, it always wants to abolish family status. It was not until the Northern Wei Dynasty that farmers were liberated from the control of aristocratic families. The state distributes land to farmers, who do not own land and only pay taxes to the state. "This new system is still formulated by intellectuals in the northern families of China according to historical traditions. Equal field system is the success of China's traditional economic thought of equal production in social transformation.

The system of land equalization in the Northern Wei Dynasty and the system of government soldiers in the Northern Zhou Dynasty finally provided a new theoretical and institutional preparation for the reunification of China, and directly brought about the revival and prosperity of the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

As for the spiritual temperament, at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the number of students increased to 30,000, and a generation of books generated a generation of bureaucrats, forming a large group of scholars and nobles, who refused to be officials, despised the powerful, emphasized honor and honor, were lofty and elegant, and were corrupt with the current situation, imprisoned by parties, dried up celebrities, and the demise of the Eastern Han Dynasty became a great conflict.

The Three Kingdoms is like a little spring and autumn. "Cao Cao, Zhuge Liang, Lu Su and Zhou Yu all jumped onto the political stage from scholars in troubled times." Zhuge Liang and Sima Yi were in Wuzhangyuan, while Lu Xun and Jing Xiang of Yang Hucheng stood against each other. They are bookish, heroic and have a family style. Scholar-officials in the Three Kingdoms valued friends more than ministers. Following Cao Cao, Liu Bei and Sun Quan is not the birthright of the monarch and the minister, but the friendship of friends.

The individualism of the Jin Dynasty is that opening the door is a friend, closing the door is a family member, and pursuing a perfect art or Buddhist life that has nothing to do with the outside world.

In the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Southern Dynasties, "family status narrowed the mind." "The southern family is conservative in superiority, and the northern family is enterprising in the sense of crisis. However, both sides are based on family forces and have been able to maintain the humanistic heritage of historical traditions in the great turmoil. " China culture opened up a new garden in the south of the Yangtze River because of the spread of southern families, and preserved the old life in the river basin because of northern families. This is an indelible achievement of family forces in the historical turmoil.

Buddhism came from the East and gained a new serum. The great contribution of Buddhism in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties lies in the absorption, digestion and integration of China traditional culture. Everyone has Buddha nature, and everyone can become a Buddha. In the Tang Dynasty, the new Buddhism under the tradition of China was founded, especially the Zen Buddhism under the sixth ancestor Huineng, which was an obvious spiritual and ideological religious revolution.

Imperial Examination Society —— Sui Dynasty to the Late Qing Dynasty

The establishment of the imperial examination system in Sui and Tang Dynasties enabled any citizen to pass the examination and obtain the qualification to enter the government. This is an epoch-making social revolution in the history of China. This system ensures that government agencies are produced by the people and composed of intellectuals, effectively preventing the restoration of hereditary separatist forces of nobles and families. With the implementation of this system, the disguised family aristocracy gradually declined and eventually disappeared.

The pain caused by the forces of the buffer region made the Song Dynasty overcorrect, emphasizing literature over martial arts, and caused long-term weakness. Since the Song Dynasty, the imperial examination system has become increasingly mature and cultural education has become increasingly popular. Since then, there has been no great separatist period in China. Centralization has been strengthened and social classes are disappearing.

Since the Song Dynasty, so has China society. "Politically, there is no special class difference. In society, citizens all over the country are protected by the same government laws. Economically, we are still under a broad and balanced restrictive system to avoid sharp opposition between excessive poverty and excessive prosperity. "

Inherited the tradition of literati in the Warring States period, intellectuals representing academic ideals presided over politics, and now politics dominates and regulates politics. This is the main tone of China's history. Through the implementation of the imperial examination system in Sui and Tang Dynasties and the maturity of the Song Dynasty, it provided a solid institutional guarantee for scholars and intellectuals to become the central force of society.

In political history, the Jinshi system is the opening of political power, with the purpose of selecting talents. However, after studying hard at the cold window and going through complicated procedures, I ignored the door officials and pleaded with the dignitaries. Once I was on the gold list, I felt that my wealth was in sight, and I held a big banquet and cheered wildly. Once they mastered the political power, they remembered the old habit of "Baqiao Snow looking for poems on the donkey's back" and were considered as good scholars.

"They have the inferiority complex of the Western Han people, but they don't have the simplicity of the Western Han people. There is a tendency to make friends with people in the Eastern Han Dynasty, instead of being humble like people in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Children of families below the Northern and Southern Dynasties have abundant opportunities, but they don't have the moral ethics and political common sense of aristocratic children. There is a dream similar to that of Warring States and Warring States travelers to climb Mount Qingyun, but no Warring States traveler despises the boldness of adults and humble princes. They live a poor life like monks, but they don't have the religious spirit and philosophical thoughts like monks. "

Therefore, the frivolous scholars, who only seek wealth and fame, lose their ideals of fame and fortune, became a great evil in the social politics of the late Tang Dynasty, and the ethos was passed down from generation to generation, resulting in the great degeneration of the intellectual circles in China. The government of the Tang Dynasty was destroyed by this generation of frivolous literati.

Since the Northern Song Dynasty, family status has ceased to exist, monasteries have declined, and scholars are frivolous, so they can't take on world affairs. Giving lectures in the academy is brewed. To "set an example in personality, edify in manners, and make concrete leadership in academic thought", public schools were not as good as academies, and private schools became a major movement in the Song Dynasty. "Those private individuals can't rely on the government to avoid bureaucracy." Without big noble's greatest financial assistance, they had to break away from religious forms. Moreover, the examination system continues to exist and develop, and some intellectuals are bent on studying poetic fu and have profound knowledge. Lofty people despise those and enter the monk temple to explore life. Rusong should pay attention to culture and stick to his ideals. "We should lead people to a new path under the temptation of politics and religion. There is always an anti-government attitude at the top, and it is a great suffering for the bottom to take the road of anti-religion and stay in the cracks. " They reject Buddhism, but they still have the sacrifice spirit of Buddhism to help all beings. They rebel against politics, but they still want to go into politics by themselves, fulfill their ambition of governing the country and calming the world, and "revive the Confucian spirit." Fan Zhongyan takes the world as his own responsibility, and "worrying about the world first, then enjoying the world" has become the standard figure to open the atmosphere of this era.

They are so serious that future generations will imagine that they are unreasonable when they hear the name of Mr. Taoist. But their spirit lasted until the Qing Dynasty, seven or eight hundred years. "China's politics and society were ultimately supported by this spirit." Fang Xiaoru, Wang Yangming and Lin Dong in the Song Dynasty, Gu, Huang Lizhou, Wang Chuanshan and Li Erqu in the early Qing Dynasty all contributed to maintaining the cultural life of the subjugated Chinese nation.

"China's style of study, the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Song Dynasty all have the intention of overwhelming politics with academics." "During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties, Buddhism used religion to avoid politics." "However, the party struggle in the Eastern Han Dynasty, the pseudo-learning in the Song Dynasty and the party meeting in the late Ming Dynasty all failed in the end because of political darkness. Like the Warring States, the Western Han Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty, intellectuals directly participated in politics and mastered the actual political power, making the fortune prosperous. "

With the decline of family status, the political power of the three generations of Tang, Song and Ming actually lies in the hands of intellectuals in civilian society and belongs to different families. "One school is a scholar who truly follows the traditional spirit and hopes to promote society with politics. The other school is a fake scholar, paying special attention to sneaking into politics with the imperial examination system, just to grab the title. " The confrontation between giving lectures in academies and taking advantage of imperial examinations. "Under this kind of confrontation, hypocrites can win by hook or by crook, while real scholars have another set of noble traditional undercurrents that don't serve princes and turn to the lower classes." "The other way is to retreat and hide in a Buddhist temple. This is the reason why Buddhism deteriorated in the Yuan Dynasty and Quanzhen religion was widely popular in the north. "

"To sum up, intellectuals under the Eastern Han Dynasty hid at home, those under the Northern and Southern Dynasties were in Buddhist temples, and those under the Song and Ming Dynasties were in academies. The real power of the academy is the smallest, and Cai Jing, Zhang and Wei Zhongxian just destroy it. " After the Tang dynasty, "the political power was wide open, but the educational institutions that trained talents could not keep up." If this is the case, it will open the political power and seduce the fake scholar to hinder the ideal future of the real scholar. "

"After the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the eight-part essay in the imperial examination system began, which is a dead end and can ruin three or four hundred years of academic life."

Under the pressure of Manchu regime, it is difficult to revive the spirit of giving lectures in academies. The pernicious stereotyped writing aroused the textual research school of great knowledge and great words in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, in order to "seek medical treatment for past historical diseases, seek new plans, and hope to prosper the king." Unfortunately, their ideal period did not appear later, and gradually this hope was dim and confused, so the Bo School turned to Confucian classics as the object. The court ordered the interpretation of ancient classics according to Song Confucianism. Verbal attack on Song Confucianism in collation, exegesis and textual research. "Anti-Song is undoubtedly anti-politics and anti-work, but its ability also ends here. Their anti-government evaded real politics. They don't learn from ASHI at most, but they can't learn. " Don't focus on the concrete things of governing the country and leveling the world at present, stay away from the old road of intellectuals, go to a corner, stay away from life, escape from the realistic center of political society, study for academic purposes, and no longer care about the masses.

From Gong Zizhen to Kang Youwei, they want to deify Confucius again and then use the deified Confucius to win political leadership (like the Western Han Dynasty). Jiang Zhongyuan, Zeng Guofan, Hu Linyi, etc. in Hunan all advocated Song studies intentionally, but they all involved military life. In academic circles, Tongcheng School's ancient prose is limited, not deep and has little influence. The academic circles in the late Qing Dynasty failed to make some preparations and foundations for the later new period.

In the new era behind, "all are external, not internal." The Revolution of 1911 only changed the life of the traditional regime in Qing Dynasty. The Qing regime, which has existed for 240 years, "has completely changed the life of traditional intellectuals in China." So after the Xinhai, "China intellectuals were eager to get out of that pile of old newspapers and fell into that wild and grotesque road, which was beyond their minds for a while, while the new trend of western knowledge was like a raging wave, without great power, and could not be taken for themselves." Therefore, in this short period, because there is no new academic, there will be no new talents. I can't cope with this new situation because there are no new talents. I just want to create a new political shelf out of thin air, without pillars, without pillars. How to build this shelf? "

Modern society-Xinhai Revolution to the present

"In the past, intellectuals in China often used academics to lead politics. In the past 40 years (Qian wrote this article in 195 1), they just want to manipulate academics by politics. " "From its best point of view, today's intellectuals in China are still bound by China's own traditional culture, still inclined to go up, not down, still fighting for political leadership, and still singing the spirit of governing the country and calming the world."

However, after 19 1 1 year, "the old ones were out of breath", and the new style of the western revolution was affected. In China, it is fashionable to imitate the flood in the west and "overthrow the old tradition, overthrow the old culture, create new politics and establish a new society".

Marx's historical materialism and * * * productism have become a religious belief of the * * * production party, which has aroused the attention of modern intellectuals in China to large social groups. The reason is that "* * * productism has worldwide and international unity, that is, there is a kind of * * * homosexuality among large groups of human beings".

However, "Western materialism is materialism, which only focuses on an extroverted life, which is not close to China's traditional introverted life. There is a big difference between the two, but China people don't know. " Moreover, Marx's historical materialism and class struggle are "expressed from the perspective of the western traditional (Christian) theory of evil nature" and "out-and-out theory of evil nature". "Ye teaches God to care about the whole life of every human being, while Marx's capitalism only cares about the material life of a certain class at most. Marx only discusses the economy, not the soul, so western materialism can never coexist with Christianity. If you believe in Marx, you must first overthrow Jesus. " By the same token, if * * * productism is to take root and sprout in China, it is useless to completely overthrow the traditional culture of China, which takes "caring for the masses" as its responsibility. "Therefore, it is very beneficial for China's * * * production party to destroy China's traditional culture." "It tends to be materialistic and farther away from China's own tradition. It is especially regrettable that this person suffers from ignorance. "

"If so, the intellectuals in modern China, from the outside, can't have beyond reality, yearning for a higher level of spiritual expression. From the heart, we can't surpass the ego, sacrifice the individual and care about the big social groups. In this case, firstly, because he was vague about his traditional concept, he despised western culture, and secondly, he accepted it because of the balance of practical interests. Whether it is dissatisfied or not, it always involves its shallowness, not its depth, and it is harmful but not beneficial. " "And their traditional culture, and eager to get rid of, lost the essence, dross still exists. Democratic politics and scientific spirit have deteriorated in this trend, so politics is above everything else, and on the one hand, it is still the center of human nature, on the other hand, it is moving towards extremely evil theory. "

"There was a local inspection in Han Dynasty, a family background in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, a public service in Sui and Tang Dynasties, and a public supervision system in traditional politics" all made the intellectuals in traditional China "rely on it on the one hand, and have scruples on the other". Get peace of mind from dependence and keep inner peace from worry. The following people can also follow this trajectory, but fortunately it's okay. The apathy and stability of rural economy are their last retrogression. "

"In the past hundred years, the regime has changed dramatically and the economy has been deformed at the same time. In the past, intellectuals lived a quiet life, but now everything is gone, so they are empty and fearless. The new origins of intellectuals in modern China are unprecedented, and they have completely embarked on the only way to study abroad. " However, "which country in the world knows about China? Which country really cares about training a generation of knowledge and talents suitable for China application for China? " "Politics between countries is profound, and primitive evolution is at a loss for them. Traditions in our country are generally beneficial to diseases, and now they are even more at a loss. In this way, you will find it useless to study. Radical, increase their hatred and hatred for their own people. It doesn't matter, then studying abroad becomes a disguised imperial examination. " "As a result, China was disappointed with returnees, and returnees were also disappointed with China. Hating China will gradually turn into hating the West. " Therefore, "all new thoughts, new theories and new knowledge will be combined with China's own inherent exclusion and curse, while the opposite side will be used as a stepping stone and amulet for their private life elopement.

However, "we don't need to be angry or pessimistic. China will remain an intellectual in China and China, and will remain an intellectual in China. With the new China intellectuals, we are not afraid that there will be no new China. The most important thing is the spiritual awakening of intellectuals themselves and the revival of religious enthusiasm in traditional humanities centers. " "If we are willing to return to the deep accumulation of China's 2,000-year-old traditional intellectuals instead of adapting to various situations, and if we are willing to admit that China's traditional knowledge and culture has its own unique value, this spiritual revival seems to have reached the end of its tether, and it is time to start a new stove. The wind and rain are coming, and the chickens are crowing. New China intellectuals! Dance! Dance! "