What changes have taken place in China's view of the world since Western missionaries came to China?

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the cultural exchanges between China and Europe made unprecedented progress, forming the first climax of cultural exchanges between China and the West. In this exchange, Catholic missionaries, especially Jesuits, played the role of bridge and link. On the one hand, due to the need of missionary work, they introduced western scientific and cultural knowledge into China, which made China intellectuals have a preliminary understanding of "Western learning"; On the other hand, they introduced China's long and splendid culture to Europe through correspondence and translation of China classics, which set off a "China fever" in Europe. thing

Cultural contacts and exchanges in China have played an important role in the development and progress of their respective societies.

First, this cultural exchange between China and the West shows obvious stages. The first stage, from 1582 (the 10th year of Wanli in Ming Dynasty), when Italian Jesuit matteo came to China to preach, to 1644 (the 17th year of Chongzhen in Ming Dynasty), was the initial stage of cultural exchange between China and the West.

First of all, the spread of Catholicism in the mainland of China has begun. Matteo Ricci, based on his understanding of China's traditional culture and social conditions, formulated and implemented the policies of Confucianism, Catholicism and scientific missionary, which made Catholicism understood and accepted by the Ming literati to a certain extent, especially the western scientific culture brought by missionaries, which attracted the attention and curiosity of the Ming literati. Catholicism gained a firm foothold in Chinese mainland, which laid the foundation for its missionary work in China. Secondly, western scientific and cultural activities have been introduced into China on a certain scale as a means of missionary work, and western astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography and medicine have been introduced into in an all-round way. The translation of a number of books, such as Geometrical Elements, Calculation in the Same Language, Interpretation of Hungarian Constitution, Meaning of Gankun Style, Illustration of Strange Things in the Far West, and Introduction to the World Map, opened the window for intellectuals in the Ming Dynasty to know and understand "Western Learning", impacted the academic atmosphere of advocating empty talk in the Ming Dynasty, and promoted the development of traditional science in China. The compilation of the almanac of Chongzhen and the imitation of western muskets are successful applications of western science and technology in China. All these opened the door to the spread of western learning to the east and prepared conditions for the further development of cultural exchanges between China and the West in the Qing Dynasty.

Shunzhi and Kangxi periods in the early Qing Dynasty (1644- 1722) were the second stage of cultural exchange between China and the West, that is, the period of development and prosperity.

The Qing government adopted a tolerant policy, and the spread of Catholicism in China developed rapidly. In the early Qing dynasty, the feudal centralized rule was not thorough, and the Qing government mainly devoted itself to quelling civil strife and completing reunification, but had no time to strictly control the ideological field; At the same time, Manchu, as a minority, is in a dominant position, but the concept of "Huaxia Center" is not strong and the cultural policy is relatively open. It is in this historical background that the Qing government adopted a policy of acceptance and tolerance for Catholic missionaries who still preached according to Matteo Ricci's policy and helped the Qing dynasty revise the calendar and make muskets. Although Catholicism was not allowed to preach in China until 1692 (the thirty-first year of Emperor Kangxi of Qing Dynasty), during most of Shunkang period, Catholic missionary activities were always acquiesced by the government. This made the spread of Catholicism develop rapidly on the basis of the late Ming Dynasty.

The spread of western science and culture has developed in depth, showing a prosperous situation. This is first manifested in the more effective application of western learning, which has produced some high-level and influential achievements. The promulgation of the New Book of the Western Calendar and the drawing of the Map of Emperor Kangxi are outstanding representatives. Although the almanac of Chongzhen was compiled in the late Ming Dynasty, it was not published at that time. In the early years of Shunzhi in the Qing Dynasty, Tang Ruowang, a Jesuit, presented the almanac to the Qing government after sorting it out, and was allowed to publish it. The history is called the Constitutional Calendar. Since then, China has adopted the Gregorian calendar. This has had a great influence on the transformation from traditional astronomy to modern astronomy in China. During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, western missionaries cooperated with China scholars to conduct large-scale mapping of the national map, and made imperial maps by using advanced methods such as latitude and longitude map and trapezoidal projection. This was the highest level of map making in the world at that time. Secondly, China scholars have made fruitful research on western learning, and achieved certain results in "linking China and the West". In the late Ming Dynasty, China scholars Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and others carried out a lot of western learning introduction work. This is necessary in the primary stage of western learning. However, because the Ming Dynasty was in a critical period at that time, there was no time and conditions for in-depth study of western learning. At the beginning of Qing Dynasty, Mei Wending, Wang Xichan, Mingjiatu and other China scholars worked hard to learn western learning and combined it with China's traditional learning to "connect China and the West". Mei Wending's Mei's Series Collection and Wang Xichan's Xiao 'an New Method not only introduced the knowledge of astronomy and mathematics in the West, but also compared China and the West. "Correct the mistakes of the ancient law, keep its roots, choose the western theory and get rid of its shortcomings" [1]. In some ways, the two of them also put forward some innovative ideas, which are very valuable. At the same time, under the organization and advocacy of Emperor Kangxi, China scholar Wang Mei Yucheng and others compiled an encyclopedia introducing western mathematical knowledge-Mathematical Essence. This book comprehensively and deeply presents the western mathematics introduced to China from17th century, including geometry, trigonometry, algebra and arithmetic, and became a teaching material for people to study and study western mathematics at that time. Thirdly, Jesuits began to preside over the Qing court, which effectively promoted the exchanges and cooperation between Chinese and Western astronomers. In the early years of Shunzhi, the Qing government appointed Tang Ruowang, a German Jesuit, as the leader of the Qin Dynasty. This practice was used until the eve of the Opium War. As Qin was the official astronomical institution in Qing Dynasty, western missionaries served as officials of the institution for a long time, which provided organizational guarantee for the dissemination of western astronomical knowledge and the long-term cooperation and exchange between Chinese and western astronomers.

From 1723 (the first year of Yongzheng in Qing Dynasty) to 1795 (the sixty years of Qianlong), the cultural exchange between China and the West entered the third stage, that is, the stage of gradual decline.

After the Holy See issued an order forbidding Catholics in China to worship their ancestors and respect Confucius, Yong Zhengdi pursued a policy forbidding Catholicism from preaching in China, expelling missionaries from all over the country, closing churches, forbidding China people from believing in Catholicism, and only allowing a few western missionaries with knowledge of astronomy and mathematics to stay in the capital court to work for the imperial court. Yong Zhengdi and the later emperors Qianlong, Jiaqing and Daoguang banned religion, which dealt a heavy blow to Catholicism in China. However, due to the increasingly acute social contradictions and the increasingly corrupt bureaucracy in the Qing Dynasty, the banning of Catholicism by the Qing government did not completely eliminate the influence of Catholicism in China. In some areas, Catholic secret missionary activities are still going on, leaving a considerable number of China believers.

With the implementation and strengthening of the Qing government's policy of banning religion, the cultural exchange between China and the West has also fallen into decline, and the spread and application of western science and technology, which once dominated the cultural exchange between China and the West in the early Qing Dynasty, has been greatly weakened. Although there are still some revisions to Li Xiang's Postscript, the missionary Michel benoit's preliminary introduction to Copernicus and Heliocentrism, and Qianlong's drawing of the whole picture of the Jade Emperor, it can only be said to be "aftermath" compared with the prosperous times in the early Qing Dynasty. It is worth pointing out that the focus of cultural exchanges between China and the West in this period turned to painting, music, architecture and other aspects that satisfied the emperor's personal pursuit of western wonders. For example, the "New Style Painting" by the missionary Lang Shining and others combines Chinese and Western painting methods and the Western architecture of the Yuanmingyuan in Beijing. Although this has promoted the artistic exchange between China and the West, it has little influence on the whole social, economic and cultural life. It shows that the decline of cultural exchanges between China and the West is an indisputable fact.

The interruption of cultural exchanges between China and the West was caused by the dissolution of Jesuits by the Holy See and the strengthening of the policy of banning religion during Jiaqing and Daoguang periods in the Qing Dynasty. 1773 (thirty-eight years of Qianlong), Pope Clement XIV announced the dissolution of the Jesuits. 1775 (forty years after Qianlong), the Jesuits in China stopped their activities. This will undoubtedly bring a heavier impact to the declining cultural exchange. At the same time, the Qing government's restrictions on cultural exchanges between China and the West became more and more severe. Not only the illegal missionary activities of missionaries are severely punished, but also the cultural and scientific activities of missionaries are subject to various restrictions. During the period of 18 1 1 year (the 16th year of Jiaqing), the Qing government limited the scope of missionaries' service to the imperial court to "pushing astronomy" and acting as translators, so there was no need for missionaries who were familiar with other western scientific and cultural knowledge. According to this regulation, only Fu, Li, Qian, Nan and Bi Xueyuan were allowed to stay in the Qing court at that time, and the rest were sent back to China. Cultural exchanges between China and the West are basically silent. 1824 (four years of Daoguang), after Fu, who worked in Qin, died, no other missionaries were appointed to this post. In this way, since then, the situation of Catholic missionaries serving in Qin has ended. The cultural exchange between China and the West was interrupted.

Second, the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the Ming and Qing Dynasties were conducted under equal conditions. It is true that missionaries came to China to preach in the background of western colonial expansion and aggression, and their activities were funded by their own governments and businessmen, but they were mainly sent by the Pope to carry out the mission of expanding the influence of Catholicism in the Far East, which was not directly related to the aggression and expansion activities of colonial countries such as Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands and France. At the same time, it is rare that missionaries spread Catholicism in China in the form of individuals or small groups and were controlled by a certain country to realize their political and economic interests in China.

This was also decided by the power contrast between China and western countries at that time. /kloc-since the 0/5th century, with the development of the Renaissance, the capitalist production in western European countries has developed to some extent, but the productivity is still at a low level. At the same time, China has entered the late feudal society. Although the social and economic development has stagnated, feudal agriculture and handicrafts have remained at a high level, and the commodity economy has also prospered to a certain extent, especially in the bud of capitalism. On the whole, China's comprehensive national strength was stronger than that of western European countries during this period. In this situation, although the western colonial forces began to expand to China, such as Portugal, Spain and the Netherlands, they occupied and harassed the islands off the southeast coast of China and Taiwan Province Province for a short time, but they all ended in failure. This shows that the western colonial countries had no right to invade and expand Chinese mainland in Ming and Qing Dynasties. Faced with a big eastern country with a vast territory, independent sovereignty and not too weak economic and military strength, Catholic missionaries entering China dare not act rashly. Only by observing the laws and etiquette of China can they settle down.

At the same time, it is precisely because during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, western countries did not have the strength to conquer China, so they could not impose their own culture like some regions and countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. China has a long history and profound culture. It has a sense of superiority in spreading western culture and does not take the initiative to accept it. After the Jesuits entered China, they deeply felt that in order to spread the essence of western culture-Catholicism in this big eastern country with rich cultural heritage, they must first adapt to China culture. Only under the condition that Chinese and western cultures will not cause serious opposition and conflict can Catholic teachings be accepted by China people. Therefore, religious exchanges and cultural exchanges conducted by missionaries are equal cultural exchanges and cannot be compared with cultural aggression.

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, while western science and culture were introduced to China, China traditional culture was also introduced to the West through missionaries. This two-way communication is another feature of the cultural relationship between China and the West in this period. In ancient and medieval times, China had little direct contact with Europe, so Europe knew little about China. On the map they drew, they even separated the Khitan from China and painted it in the north of China. They didn't know that Qidan was a minority in northern China, and the Liao Dynasty was established. What they are saying is that Qidan and China are actually the same country. The missionaries in China made Europe fully know and understand China. 16 15 The History of Christian Expedition to China, written by Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci and revised by Belgian Jesuit Giniger, was published. In this book, Matteo Ricci gives a comprehensive introduction to China's economic development, political and legal system, local conditions and customs by describing the Jesuits' missionary course in China. Because most of the contents in the book are what the author saw and heard in China, it has a high credibility and aroused great interest in China in Europe. After the book was published, it was quickly translated into many languages and had a great influence. 1735, French Jesuit Duhurd compiled another book, Quan Zhi of the Chinese Empire, based on the relevant information in the letters, notes and diaries of overseas missionaries, describing the situation in China in detail. This book covers China's politics, economy, science and culture. It is an encyclopedia for Europeans to study and understand China.

The study of China's historical geography is an important aspect that missionaries pay attention to. As early as 1585, Mendoza, a Spanish missionary, published A History of the Great China Empire based on the experiences of two Spanish missionaries who had been to China. This is the first book in history to introduce the history and geography of China to Europe. 1642, Portuguese missionary Zeng Dezhao published a book "History of Chinese Empire" in Madrid, giving a comprehensive exposition of the history of China.

1655, the new version of the map of China by Italian missionary Martino Martini was published in the Netherlands. This book introduces the geography, population and economy of China 15 province in detail. Three years later, Martino Martini wrote The Ancient History of China, expounding the ancient history of China. Missionaries in China also attached great importance to spreading China Confucian classics to Europe. 1593, Matteo Ricci translated these four books into Latin and sent them back to Italy. 1626, Belgian missionary Giniger translated the Five Classics into Latin and carved them in Hangzhou. After entering Qing Dynasty, Italian missionary Yin Duoze and Portuguese missionary Guo Najiao translated "University" into Latin, calling it "China's Wisdom". Subsequently, Yin Duoze translated The Doctrine of the Mean, entitled China's Political Morality (Sinaram &; Political science. In addition, missionary Lei translated the Book of Changes into Latin with annotations. French missionary Benoit translated The Book of Songs, and Sun Zhang translated The Book of Songs.

The spread of China's traditional culture to Europe not only enhanced European people's knowledge and understanding of China, but also had a considerable impact on the enlightenment trend in Europe in the18th century. At the same time, China's silk, porcelain, tea and other handicrafts, as well as literature and art, also had a great influence on Europe, forming a "China fever".

Third, during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, cultural exchanges between China and the West had a far-reaching impact on the development of China society.

First of all, advanced western science and technology were introduced into China, which changed the traditional science in China. This is more prominent in astronomical calendar, mathematics and map mapping. The compilation and application of "Chongzhen Almanac", the introduction of geometrical features, and the landmark achievements such as national surveying and mapping and national map drawing have opened the transition from astronomy, mathematics and cartography to modern science. This has played an important role in the process of scientific modernization in China.

Secondly, the academic circles in China have been transformed from empty talk about mind and nature to focus on reality. The Ming dynasty was famous for its lack of learning. With the intensification of the crisis of feudal rule in the late Ming Dynasty, intellectuals began to reflect and criticize this neo-Confucianism. At this time, western science and culture were introduced into China. This has greatly enriched the knowledge of China scholars, broadened their horizons and deepened their understanding of the defects of traditional culture. In particular, Western learning emphasizes the characteristics of experiment, application and rational thinking, which has given profound enlightenment to China's intellectual circles and started the transformation to practical thinking methods. This prepared conditions for the development of Pu Xue in Ming and Qing Dynasties. Liang Qichao commented on this: "The Ming Dynasty used stereotyped writing to recruit talents and scholars, and most of them didn't read any books except the Complete Book of Sexual Principles ordered by Emperor Yongle. The academic community itself is as weak as anemic people. " Since Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit, came to China, and from the end of Wanli to the years of Apocalypse and Chongzhen, China scholars such as Xu Guangqi and An have been in contact with them and made a profound study of all kinds of knowledge? In this case, the academic atmosphere will certainly change. After this generation of scholars in the Qing Dynasty, they were interested in calendar arithmetic and learning classics for practical use, probably influenced by Xu, Li and others [2]. Liang's statement is quite insightful.

Thirdly, it impacted the traditional concept of "Huaxia Center", and prompted the intellectual circles in China to start a difficult course of facing the world and knowing the world. In the long feudal society, China intellectuals always thought that China was in the center of the world, and China culture was superior to any foreign culture. Only China culture can be used to educate and influence neighboring nations and countries, that is, the so-called "China Center" or the theory of "exchanging summer for foreign countries". The introduction of advanced western science and culture has caused a great shock to the intellectual circles in China. China is not the center of the world. There are many countries in the world besides China. At the same time, it is not only China culture that is brilliant, but also there are many places in western science and culture that are worth learning from China. Zhao Yi, a famous scholar in the Qing Dynasty, said with deep feelings when talking about western astronomy: "Although the West is 108,000 miles away, its method is better. It can be seen that the heavens and the earth are big, and saints are everywhere, not just mysterious, nests, but also embarrassing. " [3] (P36) Once the traditional ideas were impacted and doubted, China intellectuals began to re-evaluate themselves and re-examine the outside world. This is of great benefit to breaking the closed and conservative state for thousands of years.

However, the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the Ming and Qing Dynasties also had limitations that could not be underestimated.

First of all, as a bridge and link between Chinese and western cultures, missionaries aim at spreading religion, while the introduction and exchange of scientific culture is only a means to achieve their goals, which determines the inevitable limitations and conservatism of missionaries in academic exchanges. Out of theological prejudice, their introduction to western science and culture is selective. Only spread what does not violate Catholic teachings, otherwise it is not involved. Some latest achievements reflecting the development of modern science, such as the scientific system from Galileo to Newton, and the thinking methods of Bacon and Descartes, have not been introduced to China. However, due to the concealment of missionaries, Copernicus's "Heliocentrism" was not fully and accurately introduced in China. Until the middle of18th century, missionaries continued to publicize the outdated astronomical "geocentric" systems such as Ptolemy, Tycho and Bula. This is very unfavorable to the development and progress of natural science in China. Secondly, the scope of cultural exchanges between China and the West is narrow, with little social impact. Under the conditions of the feudal rulers in Ming and Qing Dynasties' closed doors and cultural absolutism, the cultural exchange between China and the West was hindered. At that time, the spread of western learning was limited to the upper classes of China society (officials and intellectuals), and even limited to the court after entering the Qing Dynasty. This makes the communication between China and the West have little contact with the broad masses of the people, and it is difficult to produce great social effects. In addition, the germination of capitalism in Ming and Qing dynasties was destroyed by feudal autocracy, and its development was very slow, which also made the spread of western science and technology lack the urgent need of production development and it was difficult to make great progress. At the same time, western science, which has been introduced into China, can't be popularized because it can't be supported by the feudal government in Ming and Qing Dynasties, resulting in very limited social impact and benefits.