Arts and Crafts in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties

Arts and Crafts in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties

After the Sui Dynasty and the early Tang Dynasty were relatively stable, with the recovery and development of agriculture, handicrafts also developed rapidly in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. In handicraft industry, arts and crafts account for a large part. Urban workshop handicraft industry became the basic form of handicraft industry in Tang Dynasty. Due to the development of feudal economy, after the mid-Tang Dynasty, some handicrafts gradually separated from agriculture and became independent workshops for commodity production. After the middle Tang Dynasty, urban workshops included brocade workshops, carpet workshops, felt workshops, dyeing workshops, paper workshops, shipbuilding workshops, wine shops and sugar workshops. Handmade workshops are not only places for manufacturing, but also places for selling. Workshops and shops producing similar goods are all concentrated in one block of the city, which is called "Line". There are 220 lines in Chang 'an. Guild organizations have been established between handicraft workshops. The main function of guild organization is to adjust the relationship between workshops, avoid competition, and be responsible for dealing with the government, such as paying taxes and dealing with official duties. These new phenomena in handicraft economy provide certain social conditions for the development of arts and crafts, and the development of handicraft industry to commodity economy also affects the government-run handicraft industry.

Government-run handicrafts play an important role in ancient handicrafts, especially in arts and crafts. As mentioned in the previous chapters, most exquisite products of arts and crafts are made by government-run handicrafts. The official handicrafts in ancient China are mainly divided into five categories: ① Civil buildings, including cities, palaces, tombs, canals and military defense projects, such as the Great Wall. (2) All kinds of utensils needed for the daily life and ceremonies of the royal family, including clothing, utensils, rituals, means of transportation, musical instruments, etc. (3) all kinds of weapons, such as armor, saddle, bow and arrow, etc. Money and some bronzes (such as bronze mirrors). (5) handicrafts monopolized by the government, such as salt, iron, copper and even tea. Most of these five items except the last one are related to art, and 2343 items are especially related to arts and crafts. Because the huge wealth of ancient society was concentrated in the hands of the ruling class, the production quality of government-run handicrafts was high, which often represented the highest level of arts and crafts skills in a certain period.

The official handicraft industry was very developed in the Tang Dynasty. According to the prosperous Tang Dynasty, the official handicraft institutions were more expanded than those in the Han, Wei, Southern and Northern Dynasties, with four institutions: Shaofu, Jiangzuo, Qi Jun and Dushui. Shaofu is in charge of all kinds of skills, and (1) the upper middle school provides utensils and costumes for holding sacrifices and various ceremonies. (2) The Ministry of Commerce, which supplies all kinds of cars, fans, umbrellas and covers. Used by emperors and royalty. (3) Right Commercial Department, which supplied saddles, knives, swords, axes, cymbals, armour, rafters, paper, pens, mats, rollers, etc. for the Emperor and Li Shimin. Various government departments. (4) Weaving and Dyeing Department, which supplies crowns for royalty and officials, as well as sewing, dyeing and brocade. Silk, etc. (5) Palm Smelting Department, which supplies bronze and iron. In addition, the Shaofu supervisor also manages various institutions that smelt and cast money all over the country. He will be in charge of civil engineering, and the left department (carpentry). ② Right calibration department (geotechnical). (3) the lieutenant colonel's office (ship, car, etc. (4) Town government agencies (masons, potters). Zhenguan House is a permanent institution since the Northern Dynasties, undertaking the following projects: building grottoes (there are grottoes under Zhenguan House in the Northern Qi Dynasty), inscriptions in front of tombs, stone statues in tombs, stone beasts and pottery figurines. Will be the supervisor together with five logging supervisors. Military weapon supervisor is a weapon for repairing and treating armored crossbows, which consists of crossbow workshop and armored workshop. The Water Superintendent is in charge of water conservancy and management of weir and pond of Zejinliang Canal in Sichuan. Among the above four prisons, Shaofu Prison has the greatest relationship with arts and crafts, while Zhenguan Prison has the greatest relationship with sculpture. In the early Tang Dynasty, there were some famous artists at that time in Shaofu Prison, such as Dianhua, Shaofu Supervisor and Good at Painting, Fang Chengdou and Mao Boluo ("Fang Shang" means "Shaofu"). In the Tang Dynasty, there was the "Jixian Temple Academy" in the Kaiyuan period, in which there was a "painting straight".

The Shaofu supervisor, which is closely related to arts and crafts, has a large scale and a fine internal division of labor. For example, the weaving and dyeing department contains twenty-five kinds of "works", including ten kinds of weaving workshops such as cloth, silk, crepe, yarn, twill, Luo, brocade, crepe, brown, and five kinds of workshops such as group, crepe, tapestry and tassel. What is the job of this bank? There are four workshops: wired workshop, cave workshop and net workshop, and six workshops: blue workshop, crimson workshop, yellow workshop, white workshop, soap workshop and purple workshop.

The rise of independent handicraft workshops in cities and the gradual change of "labor system" in government workshops are the most important changes in handicraft industry and technology in Tang Dynasty. Such changes will inevitably have a far-reaching impact on the development of arts and crafts.

The formation of the new look of arts and crafts in the Tang Dynasty is due to social and economic reasons, as well as cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and scientific and technological progress.

Silk products of the Tang Dynasty spread all over the country. According to the local tribute recorded in the literature, all kinds of silk products are produced in Ding, Zhen, Wei and Xiang of Hebei Road, Cai, Yan, Slip, Xu and Ye of Henan Road, Yangzhou of Huainan Road, Yue, Run, Su, Hu and Hang of Jiangnan Road, and Chengdu, Huan, Shu and Han of Jiannan Road. For example, Dingzhou has filaments, silk, two filaments, monofilaments, two filament packages and cooked filaments. Cai Zhou four nests, cloud flower, tortoise shell, double distance, and? Such as silk, Yangzhou has exotic robe brocade, quilt brocade, half-arm brocade and unique silk, while Yuezhou has precious flowers and patterns, while white woven silk, woven silk, ten kinds of patterns and other silks, as well as light capacity, raw silk, flowered yarn and Wu silk. The development of silk weaving in Jiangnan, Yuezhou and other places was mainly after the middle Tang Dynasty. Silk is produced everywhere. Under the tenancy system in the Tang Dynasty, farmers had to accept silk and cotton. In addition, hemp weaving in the Tang Dynasty was also very common. Many counties in Huainan Road and Jiangnan Road have kudzu, rice and kudzu as tributes.

There are many names of silk fabrics, which represent the differences in weave and pattern. Names such as silk, silk and brocade are different due to different weaving methods.

Silk is woven in plain weave. In ancient times, it was originally called "Lian", but Liang Wudi's nickname was "Alian", so it was renamed "Silk" and now it is called silk. Plain silk has no pattern and can only be decorated with dyeing.

Twill is a monochrome twill weave. The weave of twill weave changes greatly, because the arrangement of twill weave with warp and weft fluctuation changes greatly, and the weave of twill can change at any time to produce patterns. This method of weaving patterns is called "jacquard". Twill can be flat, that is, silk ground with twill weave pattern, or twill ground, that is, ground pattern and pattern are two different twill weave patterns.

Brocade is a multi-color and multi-weave (now called satin weave) with heavy texture. Brocade in Tang Dynasty is technically different from warp brocade and weft brocade. Weft brocade is a new creation in Tang Dynasty, which probably started in Wuhou period. Weft brocade uses multiple multicolor weft yarns to weave patterns. Looms are complex, but simple to operate, and can weave more complex patterns and wider fabrics than warp and brocade. The colorful brocade in the Tang Dynasty has very rich effects.

Tang Dynasty tapestries unearthed in Astana, Turpan, Xinjiang include the "Julian Tianma Brocade" in Wude period (6 18-626 AD) and the tapestries of Lion Phoenix and Shujiang around 660 AD. These tapestries are all warp-knitted tapestries, and the patterns woven are many balls. The outer edge of the ball is beads and the center is a horse, lion or flower. This pattern was very popular in fabrics of the Tang Dynasty (Figures 226, 227 and 228).

Similar tapestries are also preserved in Horyuji. Among them, "Four Heavenly Kings Brocade" is more than four feet long and eight feet wide, which is the largest complete Tang Brocade in existence. Fragments of weft brocade woven with the words "flowers to deer" have also been found in Xinjiang, which is also a precious specimen.

In the Tang Dynasty, the names of brocade were often mixed together. For example, after the middle Tang Dynasty, there was a kind of precious fabric "brocade". Brocade produced in western Zhejiang can be woven into patterns such as "standing goose, Tianma, brocade, leopard print", which is called "wonderful literary talent". Twinkle silk can also be called brocade. From textile processing's point of view, it is still difficult to judge whether it is twill or brocade.

Luo, yarn is a correct weave, and a complicated weave has been popular since the Han Dynasty. Yarn and yarn are monochromatic and translucent and can be decorated by dyeing.

The diversity of brocade names shows that there can be many changes on the basis of plain weave, twill weave and satin weave, especially twill weave and satin weave. In fact, the different names of brocade are due to the different weaving methods, and the patterns of brocade are all produced by the diverse changes of jacquard.

In the Tang Dynasty, the decorative method on plain woven silk was dyeing. In addition to monochrome dyeing, various techniques are also used to dye patterns, which can be monochrome patterns or up to four colors. There are three popular dyeing methods in Tang Dynasty: Valerian, Valerian and Valerian.

Yan is what people remember today as "batik". Javall is a carved wooden board with cloth and silk in the middle, and the gap is filled with dye. Then remove the board and display the pattern. Sometimes the width is folded in half, and the dyed pattern is symmetrical. This skill legend was created by Liu Jieyu's sister in Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty. First it spread in the palace, and then it flowed to the people. However, according to another record, during the great cause of the Sui Dynasty, Emperor Yang Di gave the imperial secretary and his wife a "five-color pleated skirt". Twisting is to tie cloth and silk into knots with thread. After dyeing, the knotted part was not soaked and became mottled. If the knots are arranged according to a certain pattern, then the pattern is arranged according to a certain pattern.

Fragments of various dyeing methods were found in Xinjiang. Japan's Masakura Yard also preserved some, and Japan also preserved folding fans and screens.

In addition to all kinds of dyeing, there are also colored paintings on silk. For example, the "silk" used by women in the Tang Dynasty is often painted (a long strip of brocade or yarn or silk is wrapped between two arms from behind the shoulder). During the Six Dynasties, the method of cutting gold and silver foil into flower ornaments and sticking them on clothes may also be found in the Tang Dynasty.

Among silk fabrics, the skill of brocade (that is, brocade in Han Dynasty) has further developed into painting. When Wu Zetian was queen, she had already woven 400 Buddha statues and embroidered them. There are woven Buddha statues spread to Japan in the Tang Dynasty.

Embroidery, as the processing of silk fabrics, developed greatly in the Tang Dynasty. In addition to the previous generation of needle embroidery and lock embroidery, it developed Ping Xiu Heping embroidery in the Tang Dynasty, similar to today's disorderly needle embroidery. Embroidery in the Tang Dynasty has a halo-like effect in the use of color, which is called "Yunfu Embroidery". Embroidered Buddha statues and decorations have been found in Dunhuang, mixed with lock embroidery or lock embroidery in Ping Xiu.

There are many names of patterns and patterns of dyed cloth in Tang dynasty, but the actual content remains to be verified. Judging from the physical remains, the typical patterns in the Tang Dynasty are as follows: ① Animal patterns such as Tianma and Duifeng are placed in the group circle, which are arranged in four directions continuously, and there are four grass-rolling patterns arranged in the gap. (2) The square continuous pattern of group flowers like precious flowers. Among these models, the former is particularly noteworthy. According to literature records, Dou created this pattern in the Tang Dynasty: "During the reign of Emperor Taizong (before 650 AD), pheasants, fighting sheep, phoenix and swimming scales appeared in Kuruijin, which was created and spread to this day" (Zhang Yanyuan's Famous Paintings of Past Dynasties, Volume 10). Dou was sent to Sichuan to rule in the early years of the Tang Dynasty and was responsible for building royal articles. His family has been craftsmen for generations, such as Shi Lun's great-uncle Dou Chi, his father Dou Kang, his uncle Dou Fu and his cousin Dou Faqi. Dou Feng was named Lingyang Gong, pretending to be "Sichuan Zhang". As can be seen from the quotation, this kind of "Aya sheep male elephant" is based on pheasants, sheep, phoenixes, dragons and other animals, and many of them are paired animals, such as pheasants and fighting sheep.

The popularity of patterns with these two characteristics in the Tang Dynasty can be seen from some literature records. For example, during the reign of Wu Zetian, the costumes of the generals of various empires were distinguished by paired lions, unicorns, butchers, eagles, storks and parallel horses, while the kings were decorated with dragons and deer, while the ministers were decorated with geese. In addition, luxury silk products were banned in the Tang Dynasty, including Panlong, Duifeng, Kirin, lion, Tianma, evil spirits, peacock, crane, Cao Zhi, Wanzi and Shuang Sheng. Many of these patterns can be seen from the existing physical and video materials.

Tang dynasty crafts: Luodian mosaic, woodcut, lacquer painting and sculpture are outstanding achievements of Tang dynasty crafts. Most of these skills were the further development of the Southern Dynasties' crafts, which played an important role in the court life and aristocratic life in the Tang Dynasty. According to the literature, among the artifacts made for the court by Shangzhong Division every year, there are names such as flat, inlaid teeth, precious jewels and wood paintings.

Ancient bronze crafts in China have been developing continuously since the Han and Six Dynasties, including bronze mirrors. The bronze mirrors in Sui and Tang Dynasties have their own characteristics.

It is not easy to distinguish the bronze mirrors of the Sui Dynasty from those of the Six Dynasties. The outermost outline of the mirror back decoration is a circle of inscriptions in italics, most of which are juxtaposed, such as: "The jade box talks about the sky and opens the mirror, and the light is like a piece of water, shining on people's banks." (It is the first four sentences of Yu Xin's poem about mirrors in the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The main decorative part of the mirror back is in the ring area near the mirror button, during which there are four or six rare animals (dragons, lions, phoenixes, etc.). ) Often, some people make six groups of flowers, which look like realistic style and are arranged in a dense way.

In the tang dynasty bronze mirror, apart from some bronze mirrors with the same style as those in Sui Dynasty, the largest part is the so-called "Hippocampus Grape Mirror". The back of this bronze mirror is decorated with high relief animals, grapes, and sometimes peacocks, bees, finches and the like, with dense patterns. The decoration behind the Tang mirror is also based on characters' stories, such as someone playing the piano under the tree or the moon palace laurel tree with Chang 'e and the jade rabbit smashing medicine. But there are a lot of flowers and birds, such as double bears, magpie butterflies, Yuanyang geese and so on. And there are all kinds of precious flower decorations (Figure 229). Some of these bronze mirrors are round, but they are also popular in the form of six-in (the circumference formed by six arcs) or six-out and eight-out (such as the circumference formed by six petals or eight petals). Tang mirror has superb casting technology, soft and natural patterns, and very delicate and realistic relief effect. Its alloy composition is almost the same as that of Han mirror (about 70% copper, about 25% tin and about 5% lead). Because the grinding surface is white, it is also called white copper. Bronze mirrors in the Tang Dynasty were very precious things at that time, such as giving bronze mirrors to his ministers on Xuanzong's birthday. There are also some very luxurious ones in the tang dynasty bronze mirror.

In addition to casting patterns, the back of the bronze mirror can also be decorated with gold and silver paste technology, coated with gold and silver, and decorated with mother-of-pearl. Luodian mirror unearthed from the Tang tomb in Luoyang, Henan Province (757 AD in the second year of Zhide), with a diameter of 25 cm. Luodian embeds a painting. Under the tree, there are two people sitting opposite each other and playing the piano. A crane is dancing in front, surrounded by all kinds of flowers and birds. The content of this theme is not fully understood, but it was also very popular in the Tang Dynasty (Figure 230).

The bronze bell of the Tang Dynasty has also been preserved. For example, the big clock in Jing Yun (7 1 1 year), which is one and a half meters high, weighs more than 300 kilograms. It is decorated with embossed lions and phoenixes. This big clock is a rare large bronze caster since the Han Dynasty.

In the metal craft of the Tang Dynasty, the gold and silver craft was also very developed. Most of them are all kinds of ornaments, such as hairpins, armbands and rings. Followed by a variety of wine and food containers, according to literature, there are bottles, urns, cans, spoons, cups, bowls, plates and so on. Among the gold and silver vessels found in the Tang Dynasty, there are high-legged diamond-shaped wine glasses, hexagonal plates and lotus-shaped bowls, all of which are carved with various familiar flower and bird patterns. These objects are all hammered with pure silver or gold-plated silver (Figure 233).

Due to the role of money, these gold and silver utensils are not easy to preserve, and there are few left so far. Due to the developed commercial economy and the increasing demand for money in the Tang Dynasty, the production of bronzes after the middle Tang Dynasty was also contradictory. If you sell a thousand dollars for copper, you can get six kilograms, and you can get six thousand dollars per kilogram of cultural relics. Therefore, the natural trend is to use selling money as a tool, thus causing political interference. Repeatedly banned. When Huichang abolished the Buddha, a large number of bronzes in the Buddhist temple were destroyed.

Weapons are also very important in metal crafts in the Tang Dynasty, but there are few existing objects.

There was no obvious change in ceramic technology in Sui Dynasty. The tomb of the third year of Sui Renshou (AD 603) was excavated on the ruins of Yin Ruins in Anyang. The owner's name is Buren, and there are four celadon pots, five white porcelain bowls and a white porcelain plate in the tomb, which are very similar to those unearthed in Feng's tomb in Jingxian County. According to ancient records, He Chou invented "celadon" in Sui Dynasty because of his masterpiece of glass. Although this is a noteworthy record, it is still difficult to determine what "celadon" He Chou invented. Glass products and decorations were found in ancient tombs in the late Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. A kind of light blue cup called "colored glass" was found in Feng's tomb in Jingxian County, and its style was similar to the so-called "Roman glass" found in other parts of Eurasia.

Ceramics developed greatly in the Tang Dynasty, especially in the late Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties. The most important ceramics in the Tang Dynasty are celadon, white porcelain and "Three Colors of the Tang Dynasty" pottery.

The representative origin of celadon is Yuezhou, and the representative origin of white porcelain is Xingzhou. Lu Yu compared the two kinds of porcelain in the middle of the eighth century, and mentioned the products from other places: "Iraq, Yuezhou, Dingzhou, Wuzhou, Yuezhou, Shouzhou and Hongzhou. Let's go to Xingzhou, otherwise. Xing porcelain is silver, and the more porcelain is jade, Xing is not as good as Yue. If porcelain flourishes like snow, the colder it is, the less prosperous it is than the moon. China's Bai Xinghe, the more porcelain green and tan green, is not as good as the more Xing San. Yuezhou porcelain and Yuezhou porcelain are all green, green is good for tea, and tea is white and red. China is white, Xingzhou and dark brown; Shouzhou porcelain yellow, dark brown purple; Hongzhou porcelain is brown and black, and it is not suitable for making tea. "

Celadon is the beginning of China porcelain, and various "blue" glazes with different concentrations and colors are the earliest porcelain glazes in China. Celadon in the Tang Dynasty inherited the tradition of the Southern Dynasties. The most important place of origin is Shaoxing in eastern Zhejiang today, which is Yuezhou in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, Yue kiln celadon is the first ceramic handicraft in the ancient ceramic history of China, especially in the ceramic history of Tang and Five Dynasties.

The firing temperature of Yue kiln celadon in Tang Dynasty was above 1250℃, and the knocking sound was crisp. In the mid-Tang Dynasty (847-859 AD), a tonality official said that he was good at beating Ou, using twelve stars and moon Ou * * *, adding water, and beating with tendons, for example, was more exciting. Crisp music is also a major feature of porcelain.

The great progress of Yue kiln celadon in Tang Dynasty also lies in the success of firing "feldspar glaze" (the glaze must contain silicic acid, or use plant ash, or use timely and feldspar. The successful use of feldspar can overcome the shortcomings of uneven glaze juice and produce delicate effects. The success of feldspar glaze is an epoch-making change in ceramic technology, so the bright and moving colors of Yue kiln celadon in Tang Dynasty constantly attract the praise of poets. For example, in Xu Yin's poem, "Emerald melts into green, the color is new, and Tao Cheng gets my tribute first. Cleverly gouge out the bright moon to dye the spring water, and gently spin the thin ice to fill the silk clouds. The ancient mirror is worn out, and the tender lotus culvert reveals the river. The bamboo leaves in Zhongshan are just beginning to appear, and it is good to be sick. " There is also Lu Guimeng's poem: "The autumn wind in September opens the kiln, winning the green color of Qianfeng.

So I can deliver cups until midnight, and deliver cups until midnight. —— In the Five Dynasties, the colors of Yue Kiln were described as: "Old mirror breaks moss", "tender lotus dew" and "thousand peaks and green".

The popular decorative method of Yue Kiln in Tang Dynasty is to carve the underglaze tire with smooth lines, and the carved patterns are very vivid, including peony, lotus, lotus leaf, rare flowers, curly grass and other flower patterns, as well as animal patterns such as dragon, lion, phoenix, crane, parrot, mandarin duck, goose, turtle, fish, butterfly and bird, as well as immortals, figures and birds.

The places where Yue kiln celadon was fired in the Tang Dynasty have now been found, mainly Jiuyan Mountain in Shaoxing and Shanglin Lake in Yuyao.

The unearthed date of Yue kiln artifacts is accurate and has important historical value. For example, the earliest known epitaph is an epitaph in the third year of Tang Changqing (AD 823). Secondly, a batch of celadon was unearthed from the tomb of Mrs. Beihai, a servant of Tang Dynasty in Shaoxing, including two pots with short mouths and long handles, a plain porcelain plate and a porcelain plate with flowers. Round box, a left-handed flower arrangement. The age of the epitaph is Yuanhe five years (AD 8 10). Followed by the residual pot, with the words of the first year of Dazhong (AD 847) on it. From these examples, it can be determined that Yue kiln has entered a mature stage in the middle Tang Dynasty.

Yue kiln celadon became an extremely precious treasure in the Five Dynasties. Under the conditions of relatively stable Jiangnan area and continuous development of industry and commerce, Yueyao is becoming more and more exquisite and its output is greatly improved. At the end of the Five Dynasties and the beginning of the Northern Song Dynasty, Qian Yue paid tribute to the Central Plains, and there could be more than 10,000 pieces at a time, or more than 50,000 pieces, reaching 140,000 pieces at most. Among them, there are gold and silver porcelain (porcelain bowls with burning buttons, unglazed edges and inlaid with gold or silver, called gold and silver). The most exquisite Yue kilns were forbidden to be used by the people in Qian Yue period, so the Yue kilns in this period were also called "secret color kilns", but the name of the secret color kilns first began in the Tang Dynasty.

Celadon is the most popular in early ceramic production in China. Besides Yuezhou Kiln, Lu Yu's Tea Classic also lists Dingzhou (Jingyang, Shaanxi), Wuzhou (Jinhua, Zhejiang), Yuezhou (Yueyang, Hunan), Shouzhou (Shouxian, Anhui) and Hongzhou (Nanchang, Jiangxi). Among them, Shouzhou kiln is mostly yellow, and Hongzhou kiln is mostly brown. These two kiln sites have not yet been discovered, and it is still difficult to determine which of the existing artifacts is the product of these two kiln sites. The kiln site has been excavated and a large number of products have been found in Yue Zhouyao. Yuezhou Kiln Site is located in Yaotou Mountain, Xiangyin County near Yueyang, Hunan Province. It is made of bean green glaze semi-porcelain, beige glaze and white glaze. In the tomb of King Yvonne, where the epitaph of Tang Wenzong in the 6th year of Taihe (AD 832) was found on the outskirts of Changsha, kiln-crossing artifacts were unearthed. All kinds of celadon jars are decorated with carved flowers. Wuzhou kiln is near Jinhua, and the celadon produced is quite heavy.

In recent years, many Tang celadon kilns and physical specimens with Yueyao style have been found in various places, most of which are located in the south of the Yangtze River basin and the north of the Yangtze River basin. The known celadon kilns are all from the Five Dynasties and the Northern Song Dynasty. The most noteworthy thing about southern celadon is a large number of celadon found in the Tang tomb of Shima Village, Panyu County, Guangdong Province. For example, in the 12th year of Dazhong (AD 858), a four-eared celadon jar was found in the tomb of Yao Tan, the eldest daughter of Shi Yaoge, the governor of Guangzhou, and a beautifully designed Liang Gai jar was unearthed in another tomb in the Tang Dynasty. At that time, a total of 65432+0/85 pieces of porcelain were unearthed in the same tomb. These blue glazed porcelain tires are hard white and slightly gray, and the glaze color is light gray blue and thin, which is comparable to that of Tang Yue Kiln. The site of celadon kiln was found in Huangdigang near Guangzhou, which shows that Guangzhou was also a center of celadon production in the Tang and Five Dynasties. Baimashan, Huiyang, and Shangbu, Chaozhou, in the east of Guangdong, also have celadon kiln sites in the Tang Dynasty, and Chaozhou has Longquan porcelain in the Song and Ming Dynasties.

Jingdezhen is the center of modern ceramic technology in China. Celadon with Yue kiln style was also fired in the Tang Dynasty. There are many ancient kiln sites in Hu Xiang and Hutian area.

Jizhou Kiln in He Yong Town, Ji 'an, Jiangxi Province, was famous for its white porcelain in the Song Dynasty, and its products in the Tang Dynasty were mainly white porcelain and celadon. However, there are not many physical objects found, and the specific understanding is still lacking.

Celadon not only attracted widespread attention in China during the Tang and Five Dynasties, but also sold abroad in large quantities. Pieces of celadon with Yue kiln style in Tang Dynasty were found overseas. For example, debris has been found in the ancient city of Fausta near Cairo (which flourished in the 9th century and was destroyed at the beginning of13rd century), the site of Cha marat in Persia (which was built in 838 and destroyed in 883) and the site of Nabad in Boulami (destroyed in the earthquake of 1020). Horyuji and other places in Japan also have Yue kiln porcelain handed down from the Tang Dynasty. As for celadon, it became popular in the Ming Dynasty, and a so-called "firewood kiln" celadon appeared in the Five Dynasties. According to Post-Zhou Shizong, the glaze color of the fired porcelain is "after the rain, the blue clouds break, and the color is like the future". It is recorded in the Ming Dynasty that the characteristics of firewood kiln are "blue as the sky, bright as a mirror, thin as paper and loud as clear". It is said that the kiln site is near Zhengzhou. These claims have not been confirmed yet. In the past, the so-called firewood kiln appliances were incidental.

Yao Xing white porcelain was called Yueyao celadon in the Tang Dynasty. The rise of white porcelain opened a new tradition in the later period of China ceramic history. The Tang and Song Dynasties were the times when celadon and white porcelain were in parallel. After the Song Dynasty, white porcelain dominated since the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. White porcelain in Yao Xing was very popular in the Tang Dynasty.

According to the records of the Tang Dynasty, Xing Kiln is located in Neiqiu, Hebei Province, but the kiln site has not yet been determined. Now you can see many white glazed porcelains in the Tang Dynasty, which experts think is the so-called "Xing Kiln". For example, a pair of white porcelain bowls, except celadon, were found in the tomb of Fu Yao in the 12th year of Tang Dynasty (AD 858) near Guangzhou, which must be Xing Kiln. Tire thickness, tire soil Bai Jie, fine as mud, extremely hard, high degree of porcelain, white glaze moist, opaque, not open, slightly yellow or light blue light. There is a layer of underglaze color between the tire and the glaze, or called Huazhuang soil. Stylistically, the bowl is characterized by a round high edge (commonly known as "hem") and no flat bottom. Many such white porcelains have been found now. According to records, although Xing Kiln was called Yue Kiln in Tang Dynasty, it did not develop further after Tang Dynasty. Dingzhou was the center of white porcelain in the Northern Song Dynasty. There are also white porcelain in Pingding, Pingyang and Huozhou in Shanshan area in Tang Dynasty.

There used to be a so-called Dayi kiln in Sichuan. In Du Fu's poem, it is said that "the porcelain burning in Dayi is light and firm, and the buckle is like the legend of mourning jade in Jincheng. The White House is better than frost and snow, and it is urgent to send Mao Zhai to pity. " Although the white porcelain found in Sichuan in recent years is not "light and thick", it is not a white glaze with a glaze color close to frost and snow. The site of Dayi kiln has yet to be determined. A large number of white glazed porcelains have been found in Hunan, and its origin is still difficult to determine.

Jiangxi Jizhou Kiln is the center of white porcelain. The rise period was roughly in the Five Dynasties. Jizhou has the printing of Ding Kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty and the black lacquer flower decoration of Cizhou Kiln, and Jizhou also produces black porcelain.

These incomplete data also illustrate the universality of white porcelain in the Tang Dynasty (Figure 23 1).

The tri-colored glaze in Tang Dynasty belongs to the soft glaze system of blue, yellow and lead in Han Dynasty. Most of the funerary objects in the Tang Dynasty are funerary objects, which are different from Yuezhou celadon and Xingzhou white porcelain. There are sculptures of figures, birds and animals, chariots and horses, and many utensils, such as bottles, cans, plates and lamps. Tang Sancai is called "Sancai" because of its soft embryo and yellow, green and white glaze. Thick yellow is close to reddish brown, and blue is rare. Tricolor is consciously decorated with the change of glaze color, which is rich in gorgeous effect.

The decorative art of the Tang Dynasty has become the characteristics of the times with its gorgeous and beautiful style. For example, it can be seen from the pattern of Dunhuang algae wells that the hanging curtains have become wreaths, and lush flowers have grown on the curly grass; The leaves of turmeric become diverse and have considerable thickness. This kind of flower is mostly dense double petals, which are not fully unfolded. Each petal is full of juice, so that it is unfolded and folded back.

The grass scroll patterns in the Tang Dynasty are all bright and colorful in Dunhuang algae well patterns (Figure 235). Flower patterns in the Tang Dynasty are common in brocade, dyed cloth, bronze mirrors and porcelain. The embossed rolling grass flower pattern on the side of the Tang Dynasty tablet (such as the Da Zhi Zen Master tablet in Xi 'an stele forest is a famous example) shows the healthy style of the Tang Dynasty pattern.

Among the flower patterns, lotus is further enriched, and baohua is becoming popular. Peony, as a famous flower in Luoyang, has also become the most valued pattern within the scope of decorative arts since then (Figure 234). Matching the flower pattern are some birds, butterflies and the like. In particular, flowers and birds form a small scene, which is very poetic. Pairs of birds, such as mandarin ducks, are also common.

There are also some dragons and phoenixes in the animal patterns of the Tang Dynasty, which are very vivid.

The most obvious feature of decorative patterns in Tang dynasty is realistic style, which has certain regularity in organization, exquisite image processing and no large amount of deformation. The decorative art in the Tang Dynasty is another major change in the historical development process since the end of the Warring States Period.

The patterns in the Tang Dynasty are obviously influenced by external factors, such as the unity pattern, the paired animals in the unity pattern and Julian around the unity pattern, which can be represented by the "male elephant of the spirit" in the brocade. This was influenced by the Persian Sassanian dynasty model.

On the basis of the fine traditions of the Six Dynasties, the fine arts of the Tang Dynasty, due to the progress of technology and the efforts of a large number of painters, created an art with more perfect image, clearer theme and more powerful reflection on real life.

In the fine arts of the Tang Dynasty, religious fine arts are closely combined with real life, and excellent fine arts specifically reflect the real life of the Tang Dynasty. For example, a bodhisattva is plump and healthy, but her expression is calm and even indifferent.

Paintings depicting aristocrats, especially aristocratic women, concentrated on their lonely, boring, poor and empty lives. Some clay figurines tend to dig out the disgusting social essence of some characters. These are all important achievements of realism in the Tang Dynasty.

The vigorous development and drastic changes in all aspects of society in the Tang Dynasty required and could develop more talents and strength. Excellent artists have high creativity, strong creative enthusiasm and rich artistic imagination. For example, they created an extremely prosperous and joyful pure land and an extremely miserable and horrible hell; It created a tense debate between Vimo and Manjusri, and also created a life-and-death scene of poor work and Toto Loki. It also created the leisure of the nobles in the garden and the loneliness of the ladies in the deep palace, and created countless life images and solemn and beautiful models. These artistic conceptions and images are important achievements in the history of art.

In the fine arts of the Tang Dynasty, great progress was made in artistic skills. The creation of various types of faces and expressions of characters and the dynamic expression of gestures are more abundant and free. Discover and begin to show the beautiful features of natural things: mountains and rivers, flowers and birds. Painting after the Tang Dynasty is good at choosing some poetic and dramatic scenes in life, rather than depicting life on a flat panel. In composition, the perspective of distance and scale tends to be correct, and it is more powerful in expressing some contents and ideas. The relationship between characters is no longer parallel or nearly parallel, nor is it based on size, but it is handled more naturally, truly and artistically.

Props and environment have gradually played a greater role in expressing the theme content. After the prosperous Tang Dynasty, artistic skills were completely out of the childish state.

The representative art of the Tang Dynasty is mainly the art of the prosperous Tang Dynasty, with rich and elegant image, luxurious and compact structure, gorgeous and harmonious colors. In short, it is one of the most outstanding classical arts in China and even in the world, just like the abundant economic power, political power and people's creativity and elegant style represented by the prosperous Tang Dynasty.