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Second Year Geography (Science) Level Test Review Outline

Compulsory 2

Chapter 1 Population Changes

I. Population Growth:

1. General Trend: the world's population is growing by more than 70 million people each year.

2. The growth of population in a region is affected by natural increase and population migration, and the natural increase of population is determined by the same birth and death rates***.

Natural growth of population = birth rate - death rate

3. Differences: time - since the 20th century is a period of rapid population growth in the world. The reasons for this are the expanding scope of exploitation and transformation of the natural environment, the increasing defense against various disasters and diseases, the political independence and economic development of developing countries.

Spatially - developed countries grew slowly, (some countries have negative growth, such as Russia, Germany, Hungary, etc.);

Developing countries faster (especially in Africa), and now slowing down the growth rate. The reasons for the differences are mainly due to differences in the level of economic development and differences in the concept of fertility.

4. Population Problems and Countermeasures: Developing countries - population growth is too fast, there is a surplus of labor force, employment difficulties, social disorder and other social problems; to take family planning, population growth control policies.

Developed countries - too slow population growth, resulting in labor shortages, insufficient national defense forces, overburdened society and other problems

Problems; measures can be taken to encourage childbearing, absorb foreign immigrants and other measures.

Figure 1

5. Population growth pattern: by the birth rate, death rate, natural growth rate of three indicators **** the same composition.

Primitive: high births, high deaths, and low growth;

Traditional: high births, low deaths, and high growth;

Modern: low births, low deaths, and low growth; as in Figure 1:

"High" and "low High" and "low" are often referenced to 1%, and if they are below or close to 1%, they can be described as "low".

Currently, developed countries have entered the modern type;

Most developing countries have not yet completed the transition from traditional to modern;

The world is still in the transition stage from traditional to modern;

China has basically realized the transition from traditional to modern.

II. Population Migration:

1. Meaning: a change in the place of residence of a person, either internationally or within the country, for a period of one year or more.

2. International Population Migration:

Before World War II - Causes: geographical discoveries and the opening of new shipping routes; the development of capitalism and the expansion of colonialism;

Characteristics: group and mass migration;

Flows: from the old continent to the new continent, from the developed countries to undeveloped countries.

Main place of emigration: Europe; place of immigration: America and Oceania. (Blacks were sold as slaves in the Americas; Asians were recruited as laborers in Southeast Asia and the Americas).

Significance: Population migration objectively developed the New World, spread industrial civilization, and changed the spatial distribution of human races.

After World War II - Reasons: unbalanced economic development of countries; regional differences in labor supply and demand.

Characteristics: a decrease in the number of settled immigrants and an increase in the number of short-term itinerant workers;

Flow: from developing countries to developed countries; North America, Western Europe and Oceania attracted a large number of immigrants due to their developed economies; West Asia and North Africa, where oil is exploited and the economy develops more rapidly, also attracted a large number of foreign workers.

3, China's population flow:

The early years of the founding of the country - flow: the state planned and organized from the eastern cities to the northwest, northeast and other border areas;

Purpose: the development of the country;

Reasons: the southeastern part of the country is overcrowded with people and land, and there is a surplus of laborers, the northwest and northeast regions sparsely populated and labor-rich in the northwest and northeast.

After the reform and opening up (flow of migrant workers) -

Flow: spontaneous flow from backward areas to developed areas, from inland to coastal, from mountainous areas to plains, from rural to urban areas.

Reason: due to unbalanced regional economic development. (The eastern coastal cities are economically developed, and the western inland, especially the rural economy is backward).

Meaning: on the one hand, the flow of migrant workers can ease the contradiction of moving out of a large number of places, increase economic income, narrow the regional differences;

On the other hand, it can also solve the problem of the shortage of labor in the economically developed areas of the eastern seaboard, and promote economic development;

At the same time, it also produces a series of social problems (such as the loss of talent in the outgoing place, and the social security chaos in the incoming place, traffic congestion, housing difficulties, etc.). and housing difficulties, etc.).

4, the U.S. population flow: from the northeast (frozen zone) to the south and west (sunny zone).

5. Factors affecting population movement:

Natural factors: climate, soil, fresh water, minerals, etc.

Socio-economic factors: economy, transportation, culture, family and marriage, etc.

Political factors: policies, wars, political changes, etc.

Three, a few concepts: environmental carrying capacity - refers to the maximum number of people that can be sustainably fed by a given resource.

Environmental population capacity - a comprehensive consideration of a variety of resources, the maximum number of people that the environment can sustainably support (i.e., the minimum environmental carrying

carrying capacity, which is a limit value). Factors affecting the population capacity of the environment are resources (the most important factor), the level of scientific and technological development, the level of living and cultural consumption of the population. Under current technological conditions, it is estimated that the world's environmental population capacity of 10 billion, 1.6 billion in our country.

Reasonable population capacity - the optimal number of people in the country or region under certain conditions. China's reasonable population capacity is estimated at 700 million.

Chapter II Cities and Urbanization

I. Urban Forms:

Cluster - mostly found in the plains; strip - mostly found in the river valleys; clusters - mostly found in mountainous or hilly areas. -mostly seen in mountainous or hilly areas.

Second, the city's functional areas: the city due to different land use, different land use types in the city to concentrate and form different functional areas. Residential area, industrial area, commercial area is the most common functional areas in the city.

Commercial district - the smallest area, mostly distributed in the form of points or strips in the center of the city, next to the main traffic arteries or corner intersections;

Industrial district - a medium area, most of them are distributed in the form of a slice in the city's outer edges and next to the main lines of traffic (such as railways, highways, rivers). (such as railroads, highways, rivers);

Residential area - the largest area (occupying 40-60% of the urban space), is the most extensive type of land use in the city, mostly in the form of a piece. High-level residential areas are located on high slopes, at the outer edges of the city, close to the cultural district, and in areas with beautiful environments;

Low-level residential areas are located in lowlands, close to the inner city and industrial areas, and have poor amenities and environments.

There is no clear boundary between the functional areas.

It is necessary to rationally organize the functional zones of the city: there should be convenient transportation between the industrial land and the living land;

Reasonable arrangement of the location of the industrial land in order to reduce the pollution to the residential area;

Setting up a protective belt between the industrial area and the living area;

Leaving room for development.

Third, the internal spatial structure of the city:

Figure 4

The formation of the internal spatial structure of the city is the result of a variety of factors **** the same role, and the economic factors are the main factors affecting the internal spatial structure of the city. Each piece of land in the city is used for which kind of activities, mainly depends on the various activities are willing to pay the rent of the factors affecting the level of rent are mainly the distance from the city center (the closer to the city center, the higher the rent) and the degree of accessibility of the traffic (the more roads through, or the closer to the traffic arteries, the higher the rent). The rent-paying capacity of various functional areas is shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2

Figure 3

Fourth, the city class: divided by the size of the city's population. Generally divided into market towns, cities, large cities, megacities.

The higher the city class, the fewer the number, the greater the distance between cities, the greater the scope of its services (the area for which the city provides products and services, including the city itself, nearby small towns and rural areas), the greater the variety of services, and the higher the level of service.

Factors affecting the development of cities: resources, transportation, etc.

V. Urbanization - the process of population concentration in towns and cities and the expansion of city boundaries and the transformation of villages into towns.

A. Characteristics: an increase in the number of cities; expansion of the size of urban land; an increase in the urban population, the proportion of urban population in the total population is increasing. The increase in the proportion of urban population in the total population is the most important symbol of urbanization (the level of urbanization is expressed here).

B. Difference: time - initial stage: low level of urbanization (proportion of urban population below 30%), slower development;

accelerated stage (middle stage): rapid agglomeration of the population to the city, the process of urbanization is very fast, the proportion of the urban population in the range of 30% to 70%. Due to the concentration of population and industry to the city, problems such as labor surplus, traffic congestion, housing tension, environmental degradation, and suburban urbanization occur in urban areas.

Late stage: the level of urbanization is high (the proportion of urban population is above 70%), and the development slows down or even stops. Reverse urbanization occurs in some places. As in Figure 3:

Spatially - developed countries started early, with a high level of urbanization, and most of them have entered the late stage of urbanization.

Developing countries started late and at a low level, and most of them are in the early stage and accelerated stage. Currently the rate of urbanization in developing countries exceeds that of developed countries. As shown in Fig. 4

C. Impact of urbanization on geography and environment:

Reasonable urbanization can improve the environment; too rapid urbanization will cause the quality of urban environment to decline, and even a series of urban environmental problems.

Urban environmental problems:

① serious environmental pollution (air pollution, water pollution, solid waste pollution, noise pollution, light pollution, heat pollution

contamination, etc.);

② congested traffic;

③ small green areas, poor living conditions; ④ difficulties in employment, the increase in the number of unemployed people and so on;

How to reduce the impact of urbanization on the geographic environment: the construction and development of Eco-city.

①Develop low-pollution energy-saving buildings and green transportation;

②Make the urban landscape as coordinated as possible with the natural landscape such as mountains, rivers, lakes, sea and vegetation.

Chapter 3 The Formation and Development of Agricultural Territory

I. Agricultural Location:

1. Meaning: on the one hand, it refers to the selected geographic location of agricultural production, and on the other hand, it refers to the interconnection between agriculture and various factors of the geographic environment.

2, the location of factors affecting agriculture:

Natural factors are relatively stable, the development of socio-economic factors change greatly.

Measures to modify natural factors:

A, greenhouse agriculture - modifying heat;

B, building terraces - modifying topography, but slopes of more than 25° can not be terraced;

The main factors affecting the following agricultural locational factors:

A, three-dimensional agriculture in the Hengduan Mountains, three-dimensional agriculture in the southeastern hills - topography;

B, cotton and grain in the Hexi Corridor, agriculture in the oasis zone of the southern border - water sources;

C, the southeastern hills of the tamarinds -soil;

D, sugarcane in the south, sugar beet in the north -heat;

E, Hainan's triple-maturing in a year, and the Northeast Plain's annual maturing -heat;<

F, Keetang agriculture in the Pearl River Delta - topography;

G, suburban agriculture - markets;

H, flowers from Holland are exported to the world - -transportation, preservation and refrigeration technology;

3. Agricultural location selection:

Substance: rational use of agricultural land.

Reasonable location selection: to consider the high and low land prices for agricultural production, the output value per unit area of crops, agricultural production requires the size of the land area

, the amount of water required for agricultural production and the urgency of the product on the transportation and so on. The following diagram:

There are three types of agriculture to be developed around the town: dairy cattle, flowers, and wheat cultivation. Arrange these three kinds of agriculture in places A, B, and C in the diagram on the right, and explain the reasons for such an arrangement

Place A , for the reason that ;

Place B , for the reason that ;

Place C , for the reason that .

① the highest output per unit area; ② higher output per unit area;

③ low output per unit area; ④ does not cover much area;

⑤ covers a large area; ⑥ large water demand;

⑦ the product is easily deteriorated, the need for easy transportation;

⑧ transportation requirements are not high; ⑨ the product needs to be transported to the market in a timely manner;

II. Agricultural geographical types:

Distribution

Typical areas

Location advantages

Characteristics

Monsoon paddy field agriculture

Monsoon climatic zones in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and part of the tropical rainforest climatic zones

East Asia,

Southeast Asia,

South Asia

Monsoon climate, hydrothermal climate and rain forests. p>Monsoon climate, abundant water and heat, rain and heat at the same time;

Flat terrain;

Fertile soil.

Densely populated with abundant labor force;

Rice is the main food favored by the local people.

Large amount of water conservancy works;

Smallholder farming;

High yields;

Low mechanization;

Low level of science and technology;

Low rate of commodities.

Commercial grain agriculture

Temperate continental climate in the United States, Canada, Australia,

Russia, Argentina, Ukraine

and other countries

Temperate continental climate as the

main climatic zone;

China's northeast and northwest.

(state-run in China, private in other countries

);

the Central Plains of the United States

flat and open terrain;

fertile soil;

moderate climate and abundant precipitation;

sparsely populated;

expansive markets;

easy accessibility;

mechanization High level;

Advanced agricultural science and technology.

Large scale of production;

High level of mechanization;

High level of science and technology;

High rate of product commodities.

(Crops: wheat, corn mainly)

Large pasture grazing industry

Argentina, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa (the countries of the Americas cattle grazing is mainly, other countries sheep grazing is mainly) and other large arid, semi-arid climate areas.

Argentina's Pampas Grassland

has a large arid and semi-arid climate zone, which is conducive to the growth of pasture; the land is vast and sparsely populated;

the transportation is convenient.

Large scale of production;

High degree of specialization;

High commodity rate of products.

Dairy Livestock Industry

Temperate continental climate zone of the Great Lakes in North America;

Temperate oceanic climate zone of Western Europe and New Zealand;

Australia, etc.

China's Beijing, Shanghai and other major cities around.

North America's Great Lakes,

Western Europe

Markets (mostly tight consumer markets), feed supply.

(Temperate maritime climate in Western Europe is not conducive to the maturation of food crops due to its warm, cool, humid, rainy and foggy conditions, and low sunshine, but it is conducive to the growth of succulent pasture grasses)

Oriented towards the urban market;

Commercialized and intensive;

Mixed agriculture

Basic Pond Agriculture in the Pearl River Delta in the United States, Australia,

China

Murray-Darling Basin in Australia

Benign agro-ecosystems; adaptability to markets; efficient organization of farming activities

Characteristics and causes of monsoon paddy agriculture:

Chapter 4: Formation and development of industrial territories

Factories

Natural factors: water, land, minerals

Socio-economic factors: raw materials (parts and components),

energy,

labor,

markets,

transportation,

policies,

technology

products

wastes: wastewater, waste gas, sludge

Outputs

I. Location Factors for Industry:

The influence of labor quantity, raw materials, and energy factors on industry is weakening;

The influence of markets, quality of labor, and information and communication is strengthening;

Transportation has always been a great attraction for industrial layout.

Industrial location

Location selection

Consideration of economic efficiency: choosing a place where there is a clear advantage in terms of the highest economic efficiency at the lowest cost of production. As follows:

Consideration of environmental benefits:

Principle: small non-polluting industries can be laid out in urban areas;

mildly polluting industries can be laid out in peri-urban areas;

severely polluting industries should be laid out in far-away suburban areas;

As follows:

Polluting industries to the atmosphere: set up in the downwind zone of the perennially prevailing winds or in suburbs which are perpendicular to the dominant winds or in the least windy zone. perpendicular to the suburb, or upwind of the minimum wind frequency.

Industries polluting water: located downstream of rivers;

Industries polluting solid waste: located far away from farmlands and residential Areas.

Two: Location choice of industries

Pollutants of various types of factories: as shown on the right:

Location choice of different types of industries in terms of economic efficiency:

Types of industries

Industrial characteristics

Sectoral examples

Principles of location choice

Raw material-oriented

Raw materials are not Easy to transport over long distances,

or the cost of transporting raw materials is high

Fishery processing plants,

Sugar refineries,

Fruit canning plants

It is better to be close to raw material sources

Power oriented

Energy consuming

Steel and iron industries,

Aluminum refineries,

Chemical industries

It is better to be close to thermal power plants or hydroelectric power plants. Close to thermal or hydroelectric power plants

Market-oriented

Products that cannot be easily transported over long distances, or products that are more costly to transport

Breweries, soda factories,

furniture factories, printers

Close to consumer markets

Labor oriented

Labor-intensive

General clothing, electronic assembly,

toys, shoes and hats, etc.

It is desirable to be close to places where there is a large amount of cheap labor force

Technology-oriented

Highly technologically demanding

Integrated circuits, precision instrumentation,

High-polymer synthesis, the nuclear industry,

Electronic industry,

It is desirable to be close to areas where higher education and science and technology are Developed areas

Dispersion of industries

Dispersion of new industrial zones - multinational corporations: small transportation of industrial raw materials (or parts) and products, even by air; search for the optimal location in the world.

Decentralization of traditional industrial zones: old industrial zones are in a saturated state, with serious environmental pollution.

Industrial links: production links, spatial links.

Industrial territories

Industrial zones

Industrial cities

Spontaneously formed, based on industrial links in the production process, with the aim of lowering the cost of production;

Planning and construction, **** the same as the use of infrastructure, information and cheap labor.

Industrial agglomeration

Agglomeration of traditional industrial zones:

Agglomeration of emerging industrial zones:

Strengthening information exchange and technical collaboration among enterprises, reducing product transportation costs and energy consumption,

and thus reducing production costs, improving economic efficiency, and achieving economies of scale.

China's economic and technological development zones: *** with the use of saving production and construction investment

lead to

formation

three: the formation of industrial territories

Traditional industrial zones

Remediation measures: ① adjust the industrial structure; ② adjust the industrial layout; ③ development of new industries and tertiary industries;

④ remediation of pollution, greening and landscaping environment; ① adjust the industrial structure; ② adjustment of industrial layout; ③ development of new industries and tertiary industries;

4 rectification of Pollution, greening and landscaping;

Major industrial sectors: coal, iron and steel, machinery, chemical industry, textiles, etc.

Features: large-scale with large industrial enterprises as the core; heavy, thick, long and large products;

Problems: large consumption of raw materials and energy, large volume of transportation and serious pollution.

Development of the *** same conditions: rich coal and iron resources;

Decline causes: ① single production structure; ② decline in the status of coal as an energy source; ③ worldwide iron and steel surplus;

④ serious environmental pollution; ⑤ land use constraints; ⑥ traffic congestion;

Typical distribution areas: the Ruhr area of Germany, the central area of the United Kingdom, the United States, the northeastern industrial zone, China's Liao-Zhongnan Industrial Zone. Central and South Industrial Zone in China.

Four: Traditional and Emerging Industrial Zones

Place of emergence: rural areas without traditional industrial base;

Emerging Industrial Zones

Emergence: after the 1950s

Enterprise Characteristics: Flexible small and medium-sized enterprises are mainly; light industrial products or high-tech products, the products are light, thin, short and small;

Typical areas: central Italy, the United States, and China.

Typical areas: central and northeastern Italy; Silicon Valley in the United States, Munich, Germany, Japan's Silicon Island (Kyushu Island), Scotland, England, etc.

Development conditions in Germany's Ruhr area:

1, rich coal resources;

2, abundant water (Rhine, Ruhr and other rivers);

3, convenient land and water transportation (Europe's overland). The "crossroads" of Europe, railroads, road transport is developed, and the Rhine, Ruhr and canals to facilitate water transport);

4, a broad market (near the world's most industrially developed one of the region);

5, closer to iron ore mining areas (near the iron ore region of the Faroe-Woods Plateau, and is now through the Dutch port of Rotterdam, iron ore imports);

5, near the iron ore region (close to the Faroe-Woods Plateau, and now through the Dutch port of Rotterdam) Port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands);

Central and northeastern Italy's industrial regions:

1. enterprises are located in small towns and even in the countryside, and processes are dispersed;

2. predominantly small and medium-sized enterprises;

3. predominantly light industry;

4. a large number of enterprises of the same kind or related to each other;

5. high degree of production specialization;

5. p>

Formation conditions: Main features:

1, large pool of cheap labor;

2, sharp price increases in raw materials and energy in the 1970s;

3, well-developed bank credit system;

4, high degree of openness of the Italian economy;

5, strong governmental support;

6, water for land in small towns and cities Convenient;

7, easy transportation;

American "Silicon Valley" development conditions:

1, location: geographically advantageous, clean and beautiful environment (backed by the Coastal Mountains, facing the San Francisco Bay);

2, climate: a pleasant climate (Mediterranean climate, warm and humid) ;

3, science and technology: strong scientific and technological strength (ranked first in the United States) (gathered a large number of institutions of higher learning and scientific research institutions); - the dominant locational factors.

4, transportation: convenient transportation (near the San Francisco airports, and freeways through the territory);

5, market: market stability (the U.S. Department of Defense has been maintaining a stable order for "Silicon Valley" electronic products); - - unique conditions. -Specific conditions.

6. Innovation environment and culture. -specific conditions.

Features:

1. High-technology products mainly;

2. Fast growth rate, short cycle of product replacement, and large amount of investment in scientific research;

3. High skill level of the workers;

4. Distributed in the surroundings of institutions of higher learning and beautiful environment;

Chapter 5: Layout of Transportation and Its Impact

Transportation Mode of transportation

Major modes of transportation: railroad transportation, road transportation, air transportation, waterway transportation, pipeline transportation;

Principle of choosing mode of transportation: choose the appropriate mode of transportation according to the nature of the goods, the quantity, the distance and the time limit: valuable and urgently needed goods, the quantity is not too large:; large and bulky goods:; easy to die, deterioration of the fresh goods, live goods: short-distance , long-distance

Liquids, gases, powdered solids: .

The main factors affecting the layout of transportation (lines, points): economic, social, technological, natural.

Transportation layout

Effects of changes:

Effects on the spatial form of settlements: settlements tend to expand along transportation arteries, which tend to become the main axis of development of settlements.

Commercial network

Point distribution

Density: mountainous areas are less dense than plains (due to sparse transportation lines as well as a single mode of transportation).

Location: the location of commercial networks requires convenient transportation, many commercial networks are established on the principle of optimal transportation at the edge of the urban ring road or along the highway at the edge of the urban area.

Chapter 6: Harmonious Development of Humans and the Geographic Environment

I. Development of Human-Earth Relations

Period of Fishing and Hunting Civilization

Agricultural Civilization

Industrial Civilization

Post-industrial Civilization

Human-Earth Relations

Worshipping Nature

Transforming Nature

Conquering nature

Seeking to harmonize human-earth relations

Environmental problems

Environmental problems are not serious

Environmental damage

Human-earth relations show incongruity and conflicts are rapidly intensifying

Environmental and developmental issues receive universal attention

Environmental issues

Environmental problems of global significance: Global warming, hole in the ozone layer, acid rain, land desertification, etc.

Urban and rural differences: cities are mainly characterized by environmental pollution, and villages are mainly characterized by ecological damage.

Differences between developed and developing countries: developed countries over-consume resources and emit too many pollutants; developing countries face the double pressure of development and population, and developed countries transfer polluting industries to developing countries, environmental problems are more severe.

Distribution

Classification:

Environmental pollution: closely related to the development model of unilateral pursuit of economic growth. Mainly manifested in air pollution, water pollution, solid waste pollution.

Ecological damage: mainly manifested as soil and water erosion, land desertification, biodiversity reduction.

Causes:

The survival and development of human beings need to obtain material and energy from the environment, when human beings ask for resources from the environment at a rate

that exceeds the regeneration rate of the resources themselves and their substitutes, there will be a shortage of resources, ecological damage and other problems;

The waste of human metabolism and consumption activities need to be discharged into the environment when The quantity of waste discharged by human beings into the environment

exceeds the self-purifying capacity of the environment, it will lead to a decline in the quality of the environment and the formation of environmental pollution;

The second environmental problem

The third way to harmonize the relationship between human beings and the land: to take the road of sustainable development (i.e., development that meets the needs of the present generation without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to satisfy their own needs).

The connotation includes: ecological sustainable development, economic sustainable development, social sustainable development.

Principles to be followed:

Principle of equity (equity between generations, between generations, between human beings and other living species, and between different countries and regions);

Principle of continuity (the economic activities and social development of human beings must be kept within the carrying capacity of resources and the environment)

Principle of ****similarity (the development of the economy and the protection of the environment are the the same task for all countries of the world and require the active participation of all countries)