What is realism? Romantic?

Realism is not only a world view, but also a set of hypothetical research paradigms containing various realistic theories and viewpoints. Realism is first of all a long-standing philosophical tradition and world outlook. As a world outlook, realism is based on a pessimistic understanding of moral progress and human ability. Realists regard history as a cycle rather than progress, and they deeply doubt whether human beings have the ability to overcome recurring conflicts and establish lasting cooperation and peace. Realistic worldview sees more evil in human nature and tragedies in human experience. These realistic philosophical views have been strongly reflected in the works of Thucydides, Hobbes and Machiavelli. In the 20th century, ReinholdNiebuhr was a typical representative of this realism, although the philosophical basis of realism was clearly demonstrated in the works of HerbertButterfield, MartinWight and Hans Morgenthau.

Although realists are pessimistic about moral progress and human ability, their understanding of the root of realistic pessimism is different. The pessimism of classical realism is rooted in human nature. It holds that human nature is evil, and the opposition and conflict of interests in the international political field are inevitably dominated by the deep-rooted objective laws of human nature. Different from classical realism, the pessimism of new realism is more rooted in the essence of the international system. Kenneth Waltz, the main representative of neo-realism, believes that the international system is different from the domestic system. "The components of the domestic political system are subordinate to each other, some have the right to command, and some have to obey. The domestic system is centralized and hierarchical. The components of the international system are equally relevant. " "The basic structural feature of the international system is anarchy, that is, there is no legal centralized control force." Lack of national authority in the international system leads to mutual insecurity, conflict and dependence on organized violence. The nature of the international system leads to constant competition and conflicts between countries. Countries can alleviate the influence of anarchy in the international system through diplomacy and power balance, but they cannot fundamentally eliminate its influence.

Secondly, realism can also be regarded as a research method to understand international politics. Scholars who consider themselves realism may hold the above-mentioned philosophical pessimism of realism, but when they try to explain the theoretical concept of how sovereign States interact, they often go beyond this pessimism. Most realists try to establish social science theories that can be used to explain and predict international behavior. However, the boundary between these two types of realist scholars is not always clear. The basic philosophy of realists is that international politics has always been and will always be marked by the use of power, military power and realistic politics, and they are skeptical about the value of international law, morality and the United Nations. It can be seen that realism is a general research method to understand international politics, not a single unified theory. Many critics and supporters of realism often fail to realize that realism is also a research method to understand international politics and a collection of many related theories. However, the view that realism is regarded as a single unified theory actually ignores the diversity of realism, which makes their understanding of realism too simplistic. Although the views in security research are often influenced by philosophical realism, many debates in contemporary international political theory and practice revolve around the theoretical issues of realism as a research method.

It must be pointed out that although most realists' realistic theories about international politics are often inconsistent, their core ideas are the same on the following essential issues about international politics. First of all, they believe that the state is the most important and important actor in international politics and the basic unit that constitutes the current international system. Therefore, the study of international politics will focus on the relationship between countries and pay less attention to the role of non-state actors such as international organizations and transnational corporations in international politics. They believe that non-state actors such as international organizations and transnational corporations can't actually realize the important position of the country. Secondly, realists regard anarchy, that is, there is no supreme authority with the same meaning, as the most prominent feature in international politics. In anarchy, "self-help must be the criterion of action", and the state must use all means of self-help including force to protect its own interests. Competition is the inevitable result of this anarchic system. The competition between countries is mainly concentrated in the field of military security, but it also includes economic and other fields. The competition between countries makes countries pay close attention to their power position in the international system and their relative advantages compared with other countries. This kind of worry guides the behavior of countries and makes it difficult to achieve cooperation between countries. Third, realists believe that the state will seek the maximization of power or security. Some realists pay attention to power and think that power is an end in itself. Morgenthau is an outstanding representative of this realism. Other realists believe that power is a means of security. For example, volz emphasized that power is only a means to achieve security goals. Fourthly, the realists assume that the country is a unified and rational actor in international affairs, which can reasonably determine its foreign policy objectives, consider the feasibility and possible results of various policy options, and then choose the policy option that can achieve the national objectives to the maximum extent. As Robert O. Keohane pointed out, for realists, the state is a unified and rational actor, and it will carefully weigh the cost of alternative actions and seek to maximize the expected utility, although there is still considerable uncertainty and lack of sufficient information to make rational choices. These assumptions constitute the starting point for realists to analyze international politics, but this has not led to their unanimous understanding of international politics or a single theory of state behavior. Although every realist accepts these core assumptions, due to their different understanding of realism theory as a research method, they have made some different interpretations of contemporary international politics and formed some differences among realists in the mode of international order.

Romanticism (romanticism)

This word originated from Romance (meaning "legend" or "novel") in medieval French, from which the word romance was transliterated. Romanticism is one of the basic creative methods of literature and art, and together with realism, it constitutes the two mainstream ideological trends of literature and art. As a creative method, romanticism pays attention to the subjective inner world while reflecting the objective reality, expresses the passionate pursuit of the ideal world, and often uses passionate language, magnificent imagination and exaggerated techniques to create images. Romantic creative tendency has a long history. As early as the oral creation period of human literature and art, some works have romantic factors and characteristics to varying degrees. However, romanticism at this time did not form a trend of thought, nor was it a creative method that people consciously mastered. Romanticism, as a major literary trend of thought, prevailed in Europe from the second half of the18th century to the first half of the19th century, and was manifested in various departments of culture and art.

Edit this romantic movement

Romantic movement is the product of French Revolution, European Democratic Movement and National Liberation Movement. It reflects the demand of individual liberation in the rising period of the bourgeoisie, is a political resistance to the joint rule of feudal lords and Christian churches, and is also a literary resistance to French neoclassicism.

The Enlightenment made ideological preparations for the French Revolution politically, and also for the romantic movements in European countries in literature and art, but the bourgeois dictatorship and capitalist social order established after the victory of the French Revolution declared the disillusionment of the Enlightenment. "Compared with the gorgeous promises of enlightenment scholars, the social system and political system established by' rational victory' is actually an extremely disappointing cartoon." (Engels) The romantic movement that swept across Europe was a reflection of the general disappointment of all social classes at that time with the consequences of the French Revolution and the "kingdom of reason" proposed by the enlightenment thinkers.

Edit the origin of romanticism in this paragraph.

Romanticism prevailed in France in the late18th century and the first half of19th century. It is an ideological and cultural movement in Europe with a wide range of contents, but it still lingers in the 20th century. French romanticism is mainly reflected in the fields of painting, sculpture, novels and drama; English romanticism is mainly embodied in the fields of poetry, historical painting and landscape painting; Romanticism in Germany is embodied in the fields of music, poetry and painting.

The purpose of romanticism is opposite to "rationality", and its main feature is to pay attention to the expression of personal feelings, with less restraint and freedom. Romanticism transcends reality in a fantasy or retro way. The word romance in French means rich feelings and sentimentality.

The rise of literary thoughts when editing this paragraph

Romanticism, as a literary trend of thought in European literature, came into being in the era of bourgeois revolution and national liberation movement at the end of18th century19th century. Political opposition to feudal autocracy and artistic opposition to classicism belong to an ideology in the rising period of capitalism.

The word "romanticism" evolved from the adjective "romantic". The adjective "romance" is transformed from the French word "romance" (that is, "legend" or "novel"). Judging from the available data, the word "romance" was first used by British talents in 1654. It is legendary, absurd and untrue, and obviously contains negative connotations of derogatory meanings. In the18th century, the word gradually became a positive commendatory word, which was used to evaluate works and gained the additional meaning of "pleasant melancholy".

1At the end of the 8th century, with the rise of romanticism in the European literary world, the word romanticism became very popular. 1798, Fran' especially learned the names of other creative methods.

European romanticism was born under the historical conditions that people were disappointed in the "rational kingdom" of the Enlightenment, disillusioned with the slogan of "freedom, equality and fraternity" in the bourgeois revolution, and dissatisfied with the capitalist social order. The reality at that time, as Engels pointed out: "Compared with the gorgeous promises of enlightenment scholars, the social system and political system established by' rational victory' is actually an extremely disappointing cartoon." The writers at that time were dissatisfied with the reality and tried to find ways to solve social contradictions. However, due to the different class positions and political attitudes held by writers, romanticism is divided into two opposing schools, namely positive romanticism and negative romanticism. The former is a progressive trend, which makes people look forward, while the latter is a reactionary countercurrent, which makes people look back. This difference is essentially two completely different reactions to the French Revolution and the Enlightenment.

Active romantic writers dare to face up to reality, criticize the darkness of society, aim at feudal aristocrats, oppose the remnants of feudal factors in capitalist society, and expose all kinds of evil phenomena caused by the bourgeoisie itself, so they are full of passion for resistance and struggle, hope for the future, yearn for a new and better life, and some are in favor of utopian socialism. Representative writers include Byron and Shelley in Britain, Hugo and george sand in France, Heine in Germany, Higgins in Russia yesterday (early), Mitzi Kevic in Poland and petofi in Hungary. Their life practice and artistic practice were all related to the bourgeois democratic revolutionary thought at that time and the national liberation movements of various countries, and most writers were active participants in these national liberation movements.

Negative romantics are not. They can't face up to the sharp contradictions in social reality and adopt a passive evasive attitude. Their thoughts are related to the ideology of the overthrown feudal aristocracy. Starting from the movement against bourgeois single life, they opposed the status quo, nostalgic for the past, beautified the patriarchal clan system in the Middle Ages, and fantasized about seeking spiritual comfort and sustenance from the ancient feudal society. The emergence of negative romanticism is actually a literary reflection of the thoughts and feelings of the declining feudal nobles. Representative writers are German brothers Rajgl, namely, Ashe Rajgl and Fausch Rajgl, French Novalis, chateaubriand, Lamadine Winnie, Russian zhukovsky, English Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, and so on.

The rise and fall of romanticism is determined by the characteristics of historical conditions in various countries. As a formed literary trend of thought, it first appeared in Germany. At that time, negative romanticism prevailed and positive romanticism developed slowly due to the rampant influence of German Yong Ke nobles and the weakness of the bourgeoisie. After Heine entered the literary world, positive romanticism rose in Germany.

The romantic trend of thought in France, like the waves of the sea, is magnificent, spectacular and violent. Its emergence and development can not be separated from the restoration of feudal nobles and the repeated struggles of the bourgeoisie. Romanticism first rushed out from the obstacles set by classicism, and won in one fell swoop after a close combat. Then, in the rambling inner corner, positive romantics organized a broad United front including critical realists and defeated negative romantics. 1Before the 1920s, negative romanticism was king. From the late 20s to the early 1930s, due to the political victory of the bourgeoisie, positive romanticism suddenly rose and gained a dominant position.

In Russia, romanticism developed relatively late. It was not until 19 century that it became a genre. Among them, positive romanticism is closely related to the Russian The Decemberists Movement, which played a significant progressive role in the aristocratic revolution. Representative writers are early Pushkin and Reiliyev.

The most complete, standardized and successful romantic trend of thought is Britain. Compared with other countries, the romantic movement in Britain has the following characteristics; First of all, English romanticism did not form a large-scale literary movement, but appeared in the form of the free activities of a few writers. Secondly, British romanticism has a long history, like a small river, which is as long as 150 years. As early as the end of18th century, there were signs of romanticism in the poems of william blake (1757- 1827) and robert burns, a peasant poet (1759- 1796), and in the19th century, Until the late19th century, when Queen Victoria (reigned 1837- 190 1) was in power, romantic feathers could still be seen in the poems of Tennyson, robert browning and his wife elizabeth barrett browning. Third, English romanticism is clearly divided into two opposing factions. Negative romanticism came onto the literary stage before positive romanticism. Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey are the main generations, while Byron, Shelley and Keats are the opposite.

Editing this romantic art

romanticism

/kloc-at the beginning of the 0/9th century, an art school rose in the French painting circle during the bourgeois democratic revolution. This painting school got rid of the fetters of academic school and classicism at that time, and paid attention to the artist's own imagination and creativity. His creative themes are taken from real life, medieval legends and literary masterpieces (such as the works of Shakespeare, Dante, Goethe and Byron), which is progressive to some extent. The representative works are "Medusa's Raft" by Jilik and "People's Free Leadership" by Delacroix. The color of the picture is warm, the brushwork is bold and unrestrained, and it is full of movement.

Romantic art

The word "romanticism" comes from the word "romantic legend" in the middle ages, which means heroic epic, knight legend, lyric poetry and so on, which prevailed in medieval Europe. Romanticism we are talking about here generally refers to the ideological and artistic movements in some European countries in the 18- 19 century, which are reflected in various fields of art: Germany is poetry and music; Britain is poetry, novels and scenery; France is painting and sculpture.

The philosophical basis of romanticism is the popular German classical philosophy and utopian socialism deeply influenced by the Enlightenment. It emphasizes subjectivity, genius and inspiration; Emphasize the freedom and liberation of human nature.

In artistic creation, romanticism emphasizes the artist's subjective creativity, showing interest in history and concern for major events in social reality. In addition, while remembering the history, it shows the yearning for the exotic atmosphere of the East.

Romanticism and classicism are completely opposite in artistic expression. It opposes pure rationality and abstract expression, and emphasizes concrete and distinctive description and emotional transmission. Oppose typology and generalization, advocate individuality, and describe the character characteristics and mental state of characters; Oppose the use of ancient art rules to bind artistic creation, advocate free and unrestrained subjective description, so that artists' feelings can be fully conveyed in their creation; Oppose rigid sculpture and over-emphasis on sketch as the main means of expression, try to emphasize the saturated tone of strong contrast between light and color, shape artistic images with turbulent composition, unrestrained and smooth brushwork, and sometimes metaphor or symbol, so as to express the artist's social and aesthetic ideals.

Romantic music and literature

The rise of artistic romanticism was first seen in the literary works of18th century, which showed all personal feelings, interests and talents to the fullest. Musically, romantic composers strongly show their hobbies, which is incompatible with classicism dominated by form. Classical music is as bright as lines; Romantic music, on the other hand, pays attention to color and emotion and contains many subjective and utopian factors.

However, this is only a difference in principle. According to the wishes of methodical music historians, it is never so easy to draw a clear line between different creative styles, such as classicism and romanticism. A simple definition is not feasible. These definitions are always too simplistic, because many very important factors are ignored.

For example, if it is asserted that classical music is objective and romantic music is subjective, doesn't that mean that Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, like computers, never create works that reflect personal feelings? This is obviously absurd. Similarly, if romantic composers "get rid of" the principle of traditional forms, then this actually denies them to continue to use these forms, and even use classical forms when it is not necessarily possible.

For example, Verdi ended his comedy opera Falstaff with a fugue. In addition, it should be clear that classicism and romanticism existed for some time. Weber, an important romantic opera composer and German idealist, died one year before Beethoven, while Schubert died only one year later. However, in fact, there are differences between the two music schools that we can easily grasp, and most of these differences are due to non-musical reasons. In The Romantic Period, the composer's position in society has changed fundamentally. They are no longer employees of cities, courts or churches.

Beethoven only won real independence to some extent, because no matter how generously the nobles let him go his own way, most of his livelihood still depended on the protection of the nobles. Now, in theory, the composer is completely his own master, in fact, he is also a public servant.

In order to meet the needs of the public, various concert societies and music festival networks have developed rapidly. If a composer, such as Mendelssohn, can provide this large number of dominant middle class with the music they like to listen to, he is successful; On the other hand, if he ignores the aesthetics of the times and only creates for himself or his ideal descendants, then he must be an "eccentric" isolated artist in the eyes of the public. Such composers often consider themselves as outstanding figures and prophets of future art.

The use of the word "artist" is not meaningless, because composers throughout the nineteenth century saw themselves in this way. They have a good reason to call themselves that, because once they get rid of private protection and join the society, they begin to get in touch with literary writers and other creative colleagues.

In fact, Weber, Schumann and Berlioz wrote some books about music besides composing music, while Wagner not only wrote his own plays, but also wrote many books and papers about music, drama and philosophy. It is hard to imagine why he still has time to compose so many music works. A new generation of composers have a strong interest in all kinds of new ideas in society, whether scientific, national or artistic. Most importantly, they are fascinated by literature. Their predecessors were only satisfied with expressing pure musical ideas with instrumental music, while romantic musicians devoted themselves to making music keep pace with language in the breadth of expression.

Of course, composing music for lyrics has always been one of the practices of composers, but instrumental music was popular at that time to express or describe a specific scene or even tell a story. It began with Beethoven's contemporary Weber, and later developed into Liszt's and Richard strauss's symphonic poems describing sexual intercourse.

/kloc-in the first half of the 9th century, the romantic literature in the natural countryside turned into romantic literature with a wider scope than life, represented by Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice (18 13) and emily bronte's Wuthering Heights (1847). There is a world of difference between the two English novels, which can be summarized by Walter W Pate's definition of romanticism. He thinks romanticism is "adding a grotesque color to the United States".

Therefore, it is not surprising that romantic music also shows a strange supernatural thing to a great extent, as Berlioz did in his Fantasia written in 1830. Composers soon developed a new interest in the surrounding nature, which is not a simple nature in Beethoven's pastoral, but a capital "nature", a force that has a special connection with them, because they are above all sentient beings. Whether it is literature or music, another feature of romanticism is that it places great emphasis on a single person, rather than a person who, as a member of society, is carefully classified into a certain class and cannot get rid of it at all.

Therefore, the emphasis on independent personality makes composers consciously pursue personal characteristics and sometimes become egoistic. In this way, they are getting farther and farther away from those classical composers who have suppressed some of their creative talents because they follow the rules.

Trying to summarize the characteristics of romantic music in a few words can easily make readers mistakenly think that romantic composers are all degenerate. Although some of them did cheat, on the whole, they have enough self-control ability to keep their freedom from crossing the line. Most of them still continue to use traditional symphonies, sonatas and quartets. Although there are new things in these forms that are different from Mozart's and will infringe on his aesthetics, it should be remembered that aesthetic likes and dislikes are always changing, so what this generation thinks is "excessive" is the norm in the eyes of the next generation. Yesterday's "naughty boy" has gradually grown into today's respected "old uncle". [Note: Gauthie, a French poet, was called "naughty boy" and "old uncle" when he participated in the romantic movement in his early years, while the British paid tribute to Grace, a politician who had served as prime minister]. There have always been two different schools within the Romantic Movement, one is radical represented by Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner, and the other is conservative represented by Mendelssohn, Brahms and brukner. Studying early romanticism can explain how the split came about, and also distinguish composers whose importance lies in orchestral music (Mendelssohn, Berlioz) from those whose importance lies in other aspects (such as Schubert in songs, Schumann in songs and piano music, Weber in operas).