What is the greatest feature of bronzes in the Warring States Period?

The Warring States Period is a historical period named by historians after the Spring and Autumn Period and before the Qin Dynasty destroyed the Six Kingdoms, and it is another feudal separatist era since the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. According to statistics, during the 255 years from the first year of Zhou Yuanwang (475 BC) to the twenty-sixth year of Qin Dynasty (22 BC1year), there were 230 wars. When the war broke out, both sides dispatched tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of people at every turn. At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Liu Xiang compiled all kinds of historical materials into a book called The Warring States Policy. Since then, this historical stage has been called the Warring States Period. During the Warring States period, the struggle of vassal states in military, political and diplomatic fields was fierce. Many small and medium-sized vassal States were annexed, and the last remaining seven vassal States were Qin, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, Wei and Qi, commonly known as the "Seven Heroes of the Warring States". Because Shang Yang's political reform of Qin played an important role in this rich country, Qin finally came from behind and wiped out the other six countries one by one, thus completing the great cause of reunification, thus ending the era of frequent wars.

During the Warring States Period, China's industry, agriculture, commerce and transportation were not affected by the war. The vassal States promoted each other's development. For example, Dujiangyan, Zheng Guoqu, Gap and other famous water conservancy projects not only promoted the development of agriculture at that time, but also benefited future generations. In addition, in terms of cultural thought, a hundred schools of thought contend, creating a splendid pre-Qin culture, which has a great influence on later generations.

During the Warring States period, the handicraft industry developed greatly, and the production level of iron smelting, copper casting, lacquerware, silk weaving and other industries improved significantly. Casting, welding, wax etching, gold and silver inlaying and other processes are widely used in the production of bronzes, resulting in the process of painting, gilding and carving on the surface of bronzes, which is light and smart in shape, meticulous and complicated in pattern and has superb technical and artistic level. Although there are fewer and fewer copper tools due to the popularization and use of iron, there are still many exquisite bronzes.

Section 1 Overview of Bronzes during the Warring States Period

The Warring States Period is an era of drastic social changes in China, with rapid development of productive forces and unprecedented prosperity of culture and art. At this time, since Shang and Zhou Dynasties, bronze ritual vessels have gradually declined, but daily utensils such as bronze mirrors have been widely developed. Bronze mirrors were widely used during the Warring States period, at least among the ruling class. There are many records about the use of bronze mirrors in the Warring States Period in ancient literature, such as The Warring States Policy? In Qi Ce's "Looking at the clothes and looking at the mirror" and "Chu Ci? "Nine Debates" and "Today's decoration is a glimpse of the mirror". The bronze mirrors in the Warring States period achieved great development mainly because: first, the use of iron in bronze manufacturing provided favorable conditions for more detailed division of labor and the creation of new technologies in the workshop; Secondly, after the development from Shang and Zhou Dynasties to Warring States, the alloy proportion of bronze mirrors has become scientific and stable, which greatly improved the practical effect. The bronze mirrors of the Warring States Period, with their standardized shapes and exquisite ornamentation, marked the early naivety and maturity of the ancient bronze mirrors in China.

In addition, there are bronze musical instruments in the Warring States period, which have reached a peak in terms of quantity, manufacturing technology and wooden frame decoration, and its representative is Zeng Houyi's chime unearthed in Suizhou, Hubei Province. Its materials are copper, tin and aluminum alloy. The full set of bells are decorated with figures, animals, dragons and other patterns. The pattern is beautifully cast with clear details and engraved with golden inscriptions. In addition to the exquisite decoration of the musical clock, its bronze decoration accessories are also very gorgeous, such as the reliefs at both ends of the bell frame beam, the bronze suits of dragons, birds and petals, and the six warriors with swords supporting the beam. Such exquisite bronze musical instruments and their accessories show the exquisite bronze casting technology at that time, which is of great value in the history of music.

All kinds of bronzes in this period have their own characteristics, involving many categories in decorative arts and crafts. As far as its categories are concerned, it includes patterns, calligraphy, painting, sculpture and so on. And their handicrafts can also be said to be a collection of various arts. For example, the use of patterns on bronzes has gradually formed some regular decorative techniques in the long-term practice, such as making full use of contrast, echo, virtual reality, rhythm change of density, repeated use of curves and arcs, and highlighting the sense of direction and movement. The application of calligraphy is mainly embodied in bronze inscriptions. Bronzes in this period mostly came from various vassal States, so the fonts were changeable, fat and thin. Some characters inherited the fonts of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, as well as printing and bird and insect books. Through these inscriptions on bronzes, we can get a glimpse of calligraphy at that time. We can only see a few paintings in the Warring States period, but through the patterns on bronzes, we can understand the painting achievements at that time to a certain extent, which is an important feature of bronzes in the Warring States period. The patterns on some bronzes in this period can be appreciated as paintings, such as fighting, hunting, feasting, chariots and horses, architecture and other patterns reflecting social life at that time. The composition is simple, the lines are concise, and the description is skillful, and some of them have reached the level of both form and spirit. In addition, bronze animal statues and figurines have appeared, which are inextricably linked with modern sculptures.

Section 2 Staging of Bronzes in the Warring States Period

First, the early period (476 BC-the first half of the 4th century)

At this time, the bronzes, both in shape and decoration, have many similarities between the early Warring States period and the late Spring and Autumn Period, but the artifacts in the early Warring States period have some natural evolution characteristics and characteristics of the times.

1 styling features

Ding is similar in shape to similar products in the late Spring and Autumn Period. However, among the five ding unearthed from Tombno. 27 17, Luxi section, Zhongzhou, Luoyang. The three parts are oblate, closed, covered, with ears and short hoofs. This kind of tripod is rarely seen in tombs in the late Spring and Autumn Period. There are five cauldrons in the tomb of Shanbiao Town 1. Their bodies are oblate, symmetrical from top to bottom, with short legs and their bellies not far from the ground. Northern Wen Ding unearthed in the same tomb has the same shape. This kind of oblate short-legged tripod was used in the early Warring States Period of Sanjin and Warring States Period. Two-person pig-hunting buckle was first popular in the local area. Another kind of so-called hip tripod or short-legged tripod actually connects the short legs with the abdomen through soft contact. It is a newly designed shape, and the short-legged shape will be transplanted soon.

During this period, it was mostly split, and the shape of the jade unearthed in Yuanping was similar to that unearthed in the cellar of the Warring States Period in Fengxiang Gaowang Temple. There is an inclined disk at the mouth of the distillation tank to contain the water condensed by steam, so that the water can flow back to the distillation tank without overflowing. This new style appeared in the early Warring States period.

In the early Warring States period, wine vessels in tombs often had some special shapes, such as a pair of big statues in the tomb of Zeng Houyi, a square statue with a big mouth, a gorgeous lid and a lid, which could be hung in an ice guide. These are unique works of art. In contrast, the bronze wine vessels unearthed from the tomb of Shanbiao Town 1 are more representative. Among them, the pot covered with lotus petals is similar to the pot in Zhao Mengjie, but slightly lower. Similar shapes were found in the tomb of No.2717, Zhongzhou Road, Luoyang, and some of them were covered with winged phoenix birds. This kind of pot is a typical style in the early Warring States period. Lotus pots have also been unearthed in larger tombs. A lotus pot unearthed from Tomb No.2717, Zhongzhou Road, Luoyang is similar in shape to a lotus petal pot, with a slightly larger and deeper abdomen, a small ring buckle on the neck cover and movable chain beams on both shoulders. The lotus pot unearthed in Dadian 1 Tomb in Junan has a tied nose in its abdomen, while the lotus pot unearthed in Zenghouyi's tomb has a long neck and a bulging abdomen. Lotus pots handed down from ancient times are mostly the styles of pots produced in Tomb 27 17, Zhongzhou Road, Luoyang. In addition, there are ladle-shaped pots in the northern region, which can be held by chopsticks, which are connected with the lid by chains. The popular general pot style in the late Spring and Autumn Period can still be seen frequently in this period.

Pan is the most common water container, and other small and medium-sized round-footed pots are also found.

2 patterns and decorations

As far as the subject matter is concerned, the decorative patterns in the early Warring States period are still the world of dragons such as Xiaolong, Juan Long or Panlong. The dragon button clock in the tomb of Shanbiao Town 1 and the chime clock in the tomb of Zeng Hou in Leigudun, Suizhou are all novel and complicated dragon patterns. The pattern on the chime of Tomb No.2 in Leigudun is another composition. Another change is that the distortion of the image has increased. The main pattern of beans in the tomb of Shanbiao Town 1 is a collection of circles and little wings, which is an omission and deformation of the cross-dragon pattern. The dense circle pattern on the pot belly and the sword unearthed from the same tomb are the transformation of the old dragon pattern and animal eye pattern. On the hexagonal chime of Zeng Houyi's tomb, the cross dragon pattern became a thorny pattern. This kind of deformed decoration probably appeared in the late Spring and Autumn Period and developed more in the early Warring States Period. Another change is the appearance of pure geometric patterns during the Warring States Period? Gold-plated copper beans, such as geometric moire images embedded in the bronze wares of Zeng Houyi's tomb, complex triangular moire on the lower abdomen of the sword unearthed from Tomb 1, and staggered gold moire on the chimes of Xiaotian Creek in Fuling, etc. Pure geometric patterns are very rare and simple in the late Spring and Autumn Period. In the early Warring States period, there were many portraits depicting land and water attacks, Le Yan, mulberry picking and other activities. The inscriptions on land and water hunting in the tomb of Shanbiao Town 1, the Le Yan pot inlaid in Baihuatan, Chengdu, and the swallow pot inlaid in the bronze cellar of Gaowang Temple in Fengxiang, Shaanxi are typical representatives of this period.

3 inscription characteristics

There is no obvious difference between the bronze inscriptions in the early Warring States period and the bronze inscriptions in the late Spring and Autumn Period. At this time, the inscriptions in general works are much less. The inscription on the bell is used to make a musical instrument, while the inscription on the chime of Zeng Houyi's tomb records the musical rhythm of thousands of words, which are unique phenomena and not universal.

Second, the middle and late period (about the middle of 4th century BC-22 BC1year)

In the early feudal society, bronzes developed to a very prosperous stage from the late Spring and Autumn Period to the early Warring States Period, and gradually declined after the middle of the Warring States Period. However, as a whole, some exquisite utensils are not excluded. Even the big vessels unearthed from the princes' tombs are not as good as those in the early Spring and Autumn Period and the early Warring States Period in terms of casting technology and artistic decoration. There is no obvious difference in the development of bronzes in the middle and late Warring States period, so the two periods are described as one.

1 styling features

Tomb No.25 12 in Changzhi, Shanxi Province, Tomb No.Zhao Gu 1 in Huixian County, and Tomb of Zhongshan King in Pingshan, Hebei Province. Bronzes unearthed from Chu Tomb in Zhujiaji, Shouxian County, Anhui Province in the 1920s, and bronzes unearthed from Jincun Tomb in Luoyang in the middle and late Warring States Period in the 1920s are all important tombs excavated in this period.

The artifacts unearthed from the tomb of King Zhongshan should be the earliest artifacts representing the mid-Warring States period. The objects unearthed from the tomb of the king of Chu, which was stolen by Li Sangudui in Shouxian County, Anhui Province, have the same shape and decorative style, and belong to the standards of the late Chu State. ?

Ding bronzes have different styles from north to south. Jiuding in Sun Yat-sen's Mausoleum is a tripod with a low ear and a short cover. This kind of tripod was originally a popular traditional style in the Three Jin Dynasties, but it is rare to find a tripod with a flat bottom and a round hole in Jiuding. A tripod with a flat round ear was unearthed from the tomb of Changtaiguan 1 in Xinyang, Henan Province, and the same tripod was also found in the tomb of Tengdian 1 in Jiangling, which was completely different from the tripod in the Sanjin period. In the later period, with or without a lid, the shape of the tripod became more and more diverse and magnificent, and the shape was also larger.

This period is not very popular and rare. The shield is still round, flat and symmetrical up and down. Square bamboo poles have only been seen in the cultural relics unearthed from Wang Chu Mausoleum in Shouxian County. Is it the Warring States period? Degeneration mode of lower body contraction of five-link lamp holder. Beans are long-handled and found in the Yan and Jin Dynasties. Long-handled beans unearthed from Wang Chu's tomb in Shouxian County have a knotted handle and three buttons, which can be inverted. Square beans are still found, such as the long-handled square beans unearthed from Tomb Tengdian 1 in Jiangling.

The obvious changes in wine vessels are pots, including square pots, flat pots, round pots with rings and so on. There is also an inlaid square pot unearthed from the tomb of King Zhongshan, which is very exquisite in craftsmanship. This kind of vessels, such as square pots or altars, have the characteristics of the times in this period. There are also many new styles of pots, such as long and thin neck multi-buckle pot, small mouth short neck big round belly pot, egg-shaped pot and so on.

A square vessel can be called a square vessel. A square pot with inlaid flowers was unearthed from Tomb No.5 in Shangcunling, Sanmenxia, which was low in shoulder width and could hold wine in its ears. In similar devices, there are small devices handed down from generation to generation.

The basic types of water containers are still disks, cards and signs. Giant mirrors have been reduced a lot during this period. The four-cage inlaid prescription unearthed from No.5 tomb in Shangcunling, Sanmenxia is a new style. The newly unearthed flat-bottomed binaural dish with oblique lips or flat lips in Chu has rings in the ears, thin walls and some carved flowers and lacquers.

2 patterns and decorations

Decorative patterns changed significantly in the middle and late Warring States period. In addition to some decorative patterns in the early Warring States period, there are many geometric deformation patterns of gold, silver, copper, turquoise and other substances, such as moire, diamond, hook, triangle and other patterns. The arrangement law of this deformed geometric pattern is full of varied and gorgeous effects, which is dazzling. In the mid-Warring States period, the most typical geometric deformation patterns are tiger eating deer, dragon and phoenix figure, pterosaur inlaid with gold and silver, turquoise inlaid with gold and silver, and Zhang Chen pot recording the merits of cutting Yan. Many earring pots in Chu tombs are also decorated with geometric patterns, and some of them have distorted geometric patterns, hunting patterns and mythical portraits, such as the images on No.21and No.22 of Tomb No.56 in Liu Lige. At this time, carved portraits appeared. This pattern is carved with a very sharp blade, rather than inlaid afterwards, such as Sui carved in tomb 1, Lou's plate carved in Zhao Gu of Huixian County, and Warring States carved in tomb 12 of Changzhi Watershed. Bird Ding, carved figures, chariots and horses, Long Island Warring States Tomb, etc. This pattern can only appear after the successful extraction of high-quality copper. In addition, a large number of plain bronzes appeared. Liang Sikou Ding, Liang Jiunian Ding, Ping Ding, Chu Ding, Ji Cun Taizi Ding, etc. They are all plain utensils without decorative patterns. As for Zhongshan Wang Ding and Fanghu, they carved a lot of inscriptions with plain utensils. For Chinese bronzes characterized by a large number of decorative patterns, the popularity of plain-faced vessels is regarded as the decline of decorative patterns and the imprint of the times.

3 inscription characteristics

From the content of the inscriptions, there are still many cliches in the inscriptions in the Spring and Autumn Period, such as praising ancestors and wishing families unity and prosperity, but now there are many fewer. This inscription only lasted for a long time on Tianqi bronzes, but it was not found on artifacts in other countries. Generally speaking, the inscriptions on bronzes simply record the cause and owner of the caster. After the mid-Warring States period, with the further development of centralized politics, the government strengthened the control of handicrafts related to weapons, weights and measures, and misplaced gold and silver tripod, which greatly expanded the carrier of inscriptions. At the same time, the content of "worker's name" appeared in the inscription, which recorded the official name of the bronze producer, the name of the foreman and the name of the craftsman who directly cast the objects. Other wine and food containers shall record the place of use and the official position of the person in charge, and the measuring instruments shall record the capacity, weight and place of use. [

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