The three major theories of career planning

First, the trait theory and the person-environment interaction theory (person-environment interaction theory, pe theory)

The basic concept of the trait factor theory assumes that each person has a stable trait, and there is a set of specific conditions for the work, which will be matched to the work of the individual and the best choice; if the closer the individual trait and the work conditions, the greater the possibility of development success. The first is that the first time a person is in a position to make a decision, he or she has to make a decision, and the second is that he or she has to make a decision. At the same time, trait theory also assumes that career choice is a cognitive process, and that individuals can reason their way to fit (brown, 1990), but this assumption fails to take into account the psychological and emotional responses of individuals to actual situations, so there has been considerable criticism (gelatt, 1989).

Another criticism of trait theory is that it fails to address the question of how an individual's traits are developed, and how to help them develop, so it only talks about how their traits fit with their environment, and it seems to stop at the efforts made by [responding] to their predecessors, and in fact there is still a lot of room to increase the chances of developing their potentials before they make any choices, but the focus of trait or fit theory is on [choice], and lack of [choice], and the lack of [choice]. choice], the lack of a [development] perspective is a weakness of trait theory itself.

Trait theory is used in counseling, Williamson (willimson) has put forward six major steps of career counseling, including: analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling, and tracking. Analysis refers to the collection of relevant information about the person concerned from various sources (e.g., school records, psychological tests, individual interviews, and biographies, etc.). Synthesis involves organizing the information collected and summarizing the strengths and weaknesses of the case. Diagnosis must be based on appropriate inferences from the information obtained to explain the person and the problems he or she is facing. The focus of this step is to identify the problem and the reasons for it. Williamson categorizes the problems that the average person often encounters in making career choices into four main groups: not wanting to make any decisions, not knowing how to decide, making unwise decisions, and inconsistencies in interests and aptitudes. The reasons for these four categories of problems are similar to those for the first two, including lack of education and training, lack of knowledge of oneself, lack of knowledge of the world of work, fear of failure, lack of confidence in oneself, lack of decision-making skills, or a lack of interest in the work itself.

In terms of the causes of unwise decisions, Williamson cites the following possible reasons: aptitude, interest or ability to a goal that does not match, personality traits that make it difficult to adapt to the job, too few job opportunities in the field that you like, because of pressure from parents or relatives and friends to make decisions, too much emphasis on the prestige of the job, lack of sufficient information about the occupation, and an incorrect conception of the career itself. The career itself is not correctly conceptualized. Discrepancies in interests and aptitudes may be due to discrepancies between the measurement results and the individual's imagination, or there may be an inherent conflict between the individual's interests and aptitudes or values. After diagnosis, the next step is prognosis, which is an attempt to make a prediction about the person's future. This prediction is based on the information gathered throughout the process and the structure of the diagnosis. If success is not apparent, counseling becomes the next necessary step. In this step of the counseling process, the counselor uses techniques such as assisting the client in exploring him/herself, providing him/her with information about various types of careers, the use of psychometric tests, the learning of decision-making skills, and giving him/her the opportunity to try out careers in which he/she has an interest or aptitude. Follow-up is the final step in career counseling. During the follow-up process, the counselor must periodically check on the client's adjustment. If necessary, it is possible to return to the above steps.

Second, the typology (holland?s typology)

Holland (j.holland, 1997), based on his many years of clinical experience and research, believes that the majority of people are based on the stereotypes of the occupation as the basis for choosing a career, and that this choice also reflects their personality traits. In other words, occupational interest is the expression of personality in school, work, hobbies, and leisure activities, which can reflect an individual's self-concept, life goals, and even creativity. Individuals make career choices based on the accumulation of past experiences and the influence of personality traits. The same career attracts people with the same experiences and personality traits, and they react to many situations in the same way, thus forming a unique type. Individuals seek career environments that utilize their abilities, match their attitudes and values, and solve problems and play their roles appropriately according to their personality type, and the level of adaptation, satisfaction, and achievement at work is determined by the degree of harmony between the personality and the environment (congruence).

This view is actually a simplified trait theory, but the theory uses occupational interests to represent personality traits, and categorizes people into six types: practical, research, artistic, social, corporate, and transactional, and the external environment can also be categorized into the above six types (see Table 2). There are different degrees of interrelationships among the six types, which can form a positive hexagonal shape in two-dimensional space according to their degree of similarity (Figure 1). The closer they are to each other in the hexagon, the more similar their interests and personality traits are, and the less similar they are to each other; this similarity also reflects the consistency or inconsistency of an individual's intrinsic personality traits (consistency).

As for the individual's score on the six types, it can be seen as a pointer to the differentiation of interest (personality) (i.e., differentiation), which is of great clinical significance in career counseling: a large difference in the scores of the six types represents the development of the individual's personality traits or to take the preferred vocational environment is clearer, and also more explicitly points to its interest; if the six types are very close, it represents the development of its interest; if the scores are very close, it represents the development of its interest. If the scores of the six categories are very close, it means that they are less differentiated, indicating that the development of personality traits or the preference of career environment is not very clear, and it is more difficult to clarify the direction of their interests. If an individual's goals, interests, and abilities are clear and stable, that is, identity.

1, practical type r

The word type of people with obedience, frankness, modesty, naturalness, perseverance, practicality, courtesy, shyness, stability, thrift and other qualities. Their behaviors are manifested as follows:

(1) Prefer occupations or situations of a practical nature in order to engage in their preferred activities and avoid social occupations or situations.

(2) The ability to solve problems at work and elsewhere in a concrete and practical way.

(3) Possesses mechanical and manipulative skills, but lacks interpersonal skills.

(4) Emphasis on concrete things or definite personal characteristics.

Suitable for: agriculture, forestry, fishery and animal husbandry related occupations, machine operators

personnel, technicians, general technicians, etc.

2. Research type i

This type of person has the qualities of analytical, prudent, critical, inquisitive, independent, organized, humble, precise, rational, conservative, self-confident and so on. Their behaviors are manifested in the following ways:

(1) Preferring occupations or situations of a research nature and avoiding activities in corporate-oriented occupations or situations.

(2) Using research skills to solve problems at work and elsewhere.

(3) Possess math and science skills, but lack leadership skills.

(4) Values science.

Good for: mathematicians, scientists, engineering researchers, etc.

3. Artistica

This type has the qualities of complex, imaginative, impulsive, independent, intuitive, disordered, emotional, idealized, disobedient, creative, expressive, and impractical. Their behaviors are as follows:

(1) Preferring occupations or situations of an artistic nature and avoiding occupations or situations of a transactional nature.

(2) Using artistic abilities to solve problems at work and in other areas.

(3) Possess artistic and musical abilities (including acting, writing, language, etc.).

(4) Traits that emphasize aesthetics.

Suitable for: musicians, poets, novelists, directors, theater actors, etc.

4. Social s

This type of person has the qualities of cooperation, friendliness, helpfulness, generosity, responsibility, roundedness, good at socializing, good understanding, persuasion of others, idealism, and insightfulness. Their behaviors are as follows:

(1) They prefer social occupations or situations and avoid practical ones.

(2) Use social skills to solve work and other problems.

(3) Ability to understand and teach others, but lack of mechanical and scientific ability.

(4) Emphasis on social and ethical activities and issues.

Suitable for: teachers, missionaries, counselors, social workers, etc.

5. Corporate e?

This type is adventurous, ambitious, dictatorial, impulsive, optimistic, self-confident, pleasure-seeking, energetic, social, attention-grabbing, and high-profile. Their behaviors are as follows:

(1) Prefer corporate careers or situations and avoid research careers or situations.

(2) Using entrepreneurial skills to solve work and other problems.

(3) Possesses leadership and language skills, but lacks scientific skills.

(4) Emphasizes political and economic achievements.

Suitable for: politicians, business managers, marketing personnel, public relations personnel, social workers, etc.

6. Transactional c

This type of person has the qualities of obedience, caution, conservatism, self-suppression, regularity, perseverance, steadfastness, and efficiency. Their behavior is manifested as follows:

(1) Favoring occupations or situations of a transactional nature and avoiding occupations or situations of an artistic nature.

(2) Solving work and other problems in a traditional way.

(3) Numerical and clerical skills.

(4) Valuing business and economic success.

Suitable for: accountants, bank clerks, cashiers, administrative assistants, etc.

In short, typology is simple and clear, and its theoretical framework is quite informative, and there are a lot of studies based on this theory, and there are a lot of frequently-used tests in the U.S. based on the hexagonal model, except for the vocational preference inventory (vpi), which is compiled by Hoyt. In addition to the vocational preference inventory (vpi) and self-directed search (sds) compiled by He Lun himself, the commonly used Strong Interest Inventory, Career Assessment Inventory, and Career Assessment Inventory are also used. In addition to the commonly used Strong Interest Inventory, Career Assessment Inventory, and the Uniact developed by the American College Testing (ACT), these tests are all based on the theory of Ho Theory. The ****same characteristic of these tests is that the structure of the test can yield a so-called holland code, according to which the person concerned can find out the work field he may be suitable for by comparing with the occupations finder compiled by the holland theory. For those who are already working, they can further find out the Occupation Code of their work field and compare the suitability of their attributes with their work field. For those who are facing the challenge of choosing a major field of study, the majors finder can be used to find out which field of study is relevant to their field of study. This counseling strategy does provide a very specific reference direction for the person in question, but it must be emphasized that the results of the test are for reference only, and should not be relied upon to make a decision based on the results of the test alone.

The minnesota theory of work adjustment (the twa)

Lofquist and Davis (dawis, england & lofquist, 1964), among others, have been working on this topic since 1960. 1960, at the University of Minnesota, a major center of trait theory. At the University of Minnesota, they organized the research on employment issues at the time and conducted the Work Adjustment Program. In the following decades, the foundation of the theory has been constantly revised, resulting in the current theory (dawis & lofquist, 1993), which emphasizes person-environment correspondence (PEC). Job adaptation theory believes that while choosing a career or career development is important, post-employment adaptation is even more noteworthy, especially for people with disabilities, for whom the ability to sustain stability in the workplace is an important issue for their lives, confidence, and future development. Based on such considerations, Davis et al. analyzed the factors that contribute to good or bad adaptation from the perspective of job adaptation. They believe that everyone will try to seek the conformity between the individual and the environment, when the work environment can satisfy the individual's needs (satisfaction), and can successfully complete the requirements of the work (satisfactionactoriness), the degree of conformity increases. However, there is an interactive relationship between the individual and the work, and whether or not they meet the requirements is a product of the interactive process. The individual's needs will change, and the requirements of the work will be adjusted over time or in the economic situation, so that if the individual can make efforts to maintain a consistent relationship between the individual and the work environment, then the higher the individual's job satisfaction will be, and the more durable the work in this field will be.

In fact, job adjustment theory is still a trait theory, but it has expanded its focus to include the adaptation of the individual to the work situation, emphasizing the satisfaction of the individual's needs after employment, while at the same time taking into account the ability to meet the requirements of the work environment. The former mainly involves the issue of individual work personality, including its values, needs, abilities, skills, etc. dawis and lofquist compiled [Minnesota importance questionnaire] (minnesota importance questionnaire), that is, used to assess the individual's values and psychological needs (including security, comfort, progress, altruism, achievement, and autonomy). As for the importance of work tasks and environment, it involves the analysis of work tasks and conditions as well as the enhancement system provided by the environment, therefore, it is necessary to carry out ecological assessment of the work environment, and two types of data, [occupational aptitude patterns] (occupational aptitude patterns) and [occupational reinforcement patterns] (occupational reinforcement patterns), are used to assess individual values and psychological needs (including safety, comfort, progress, altruism, achievement, and autonomy). Patterns are two tools used to analyze the nature of the work environment. The former is used to understand the relationship between the individual's abilities and the abilities required by the job, while the latter compares the relationship between the individual's needs and whether or not the job meets his or her needs. Counselors can use these tools to enhance their adaptation. The exploration of the self and the environment helps the individual to get a clear picture of his/her personal needs and the needs of the job, which in turn enhances his/her adjustment.

In terms of counseling practice, the concepts provided by the theory of work adaptation have value for application to all types of employment issues and different counseling targets. In terms of targets, those who have been employed, those who have not been employed, those who are considering a career change, those who are retired, those who are disabled, those who are rehabilitated, and so on, can be evaluated with the tools mentioned above, including the Minnesota importance questionnaire (minnesota importance questionnaire), which is a tool that can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of work adaptation. questionnaire), occupational aptitude patterns scale (occupational aptitude patterns), Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (minnesota satisfaction questionnaire), Minnesota satisfaction indicator scale (minnesota satiefactoriness scale). satiefactoriness scale, and occupational reinforcer patterns, etc. Depending on the person's situation, appropriate tools are chosen to enhance the person's exploration of self and environment. In addition to work adaptation problems, Dawis & Lofquist (1984) believe that the concept of [fit] can also be applied to counseling for personal problems, as well as to training and counseling for employees in the corporate world. Dawis & Lofquist's (dawis & lofquist) theory of job adaptation provides a complete framework for the field of job satisfaction research, reminding us that the source of job satisfaction, in addition to the fulfillment of the individual's internal needs, also includes the individual's fulfillment of the demands placed on us by a **** to do. In addition, the concept of adaptation also provides a different guideline from that proposed by Parsons & Holland. In the application of counseling practice, how to assist the person to overcome the problem of work adaptation, in addition to specific assessment tools, but also for the process of counseling to provide a specific discussion structure, such as personal needs to meet the ability to promote and so on.