Is there any information about China's history and ethnic exchanges and integration?

Chapter III Ethnic Trade in Northwest China from Ancient Times to Sui and Tang Dynasties

Tea and horses are the most basic commodities in the tea-horse trade. Tea is a daily necessity for nomadic people to digest food and quench their thirst. Since the Tang Dynasty, the demand of nomadic people for tea has increased steadily. However, it is only after people fully realize the function of tea and cultivate and collect tea artificially that tea will be used as a circulating commodity before; At the same time, tea will become an important commodity in national trade only if it is recognized by nomadic people and regarded as an indispensable daily necessities. Tea-horse trade came into being in northwest China during the Tang and Song Dynasties. China has a long history of tea picking. Wild tea is used as medicine or medicine, and some scholars trace it back to Shennong period. [1] According to Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica, Shennong tasted a hundred herbs every day, and when he encountered 72 poisons, he solved it with tea. "Tea" means tea. Of course, this record about tea in Shennong Herbal Classic is a legend. Even so, the statement in this book, which has been written from the Warring States to the Han Dynasty, is by no means nonsense. At least it shows that China's knowledge of tea has a long history.

China is a vast country. Since ancient times, due to natural, ethnic and traditional habits, different economic regions have been formed, and the varieties, categories and quality of products produced in different economic regions are quite different. It is not only necessary but also possible to exchange the needed goods. Due to the differences in economic regions, cultures and traditions, especially in the long history of different regimes, and the different control abilities of the Central Plains Dynasty over the surrounding ethnic minorities, it is in the interests of buyers and sellers to produce special ethnic trade, which is called "mutual market" or "border mutual market", "harmonious market", "unified market", "monopoly market" and "monopoly market" in history. In the history of our country, there are three types of ethnic exchanges organized by the government: "marriage", "tribute" and "mutual market", in which the economic color of mutual market is relatively bright, while the political color of marriage and tribute is relatively strong, but its economic connotation can still be seen through the political color; At the same time, the mutual market at that time had distinct political, military and diplomatic contents besides economic factors.

The commodities used by the farming peoples in the Central Plains for ethnic exchanges are mainly silk, iron, tea and their exquisite handicrafts. These commodities are very abundant in the Central Plains, but very scarce among the surrounding nomadic peoples. Of course, different periods have different emphases, and ethnic minorities mainly exchange their own horses and their livestock products. Horses had special uses in ancient times. They are not only important means of transportation, but also necessary equipment for military operations, and also necessary combat readiness materials for war and border defense. Mutual market is a special form of economic exchange and communication between nomadic people and inland farming people under the official auspices.

Section 1 Ethnic Trade in Western Regions before Sui and Tang Dynasties

Before the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the mutual market had developed greatly. "The Han and Wei Dynasties have died, and all counties and countries in the border areas have mutual markets, trading with foreigners and producing their products." However, the state has not set up a special mutual market management institution. At that time, the so-called "no official in the county" [2] refers to this. On the one hand, this shows that the central government attaches importance to the local mutual aid market, and at the same time, it also shows that the mutual aid market was not mature at that time.

As a matter of fact, ethnic trade had been widespread in northwest China for a long time before the emergence of tea-horse mutual market, and it was still active in some periods, but the content of mutual market was different in different periods, but whenever, the central government's demand for northwest minority horses was from beginning to end.

The earliest recorded mutual trade was in the Western Han Dynasty in China. For example, the mutual trade between the Western Han Dynasty and South Vietnam, marriage and tribute to the Huns, etc. , are well-known examples, which is also the beginning of a real mutual trade in the practical sense. According to Huan Kuan's "Salt and Iron Theory, Farming" in the Han Dynasty:

My husband, China, got a lot of money from the Huns, but spent it on the enemy. Mules, donkeys, camels and horses are my livestock. ..... Today, mules and donkeys are used, but they are not used by cows and horses.

The basic contents of ethnic trade in the Western Han Dynasty are livestock products such as horses produced by ethnic minorities and handicrafts such as textiles produced in the mainland. The period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty was an important period for China to actively expand his horizons and develop national trade and even international trade.

Liang Wudi, impressed by Zhang Qian's words, is willing to communicate with all countries in Dawan, and the envoys face each other in the Tao for as many as ten generations a year. [3]

In the tribute trade of Han Dynasty:

Any devotee can do it, bitch. If you want to buy it in the money market, use this name. [4]

This situation was quite common at that time, and even became the universal law of the whole feudal society. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the central government exchanged markets with Wuhuan, Xianbei and other ethnic groups, as well as with Xianbei in Northeast China and Inner Mongolia and Rouran in Northwest China, which are very typical examples.

During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, with the emergence of separatist regimes, normal commercial activities were restricted to a certain extent, and inter-ethnic trade could not be unaffected. As the famous historian Mr. Li Jiannong said:

The commercial activity area has also been in a state of separatism for a long time, and the exchange of goods has been greatly restricted; Sometimes or impossible; Sometimes or because of the need, the common market is allowed, and the location of the common market cannot be greatly restricted. In the past, the so-called mutual market was mostly on the edge of the border; The land is divided, and the land and water of the country are rushing to the border of separatist forces. In the past, the mutual market system, which was restricted to the outside world, also moved into the border, not necessarily closed. [5]

As early as, Cao and Xu Miao, the secretariat of Liangzhou, once "built salt ponds in Wuwei and Jiuquan to harvest Lu Valley", that is, they exchanged salt produced in Hexi area for food produced by local ethnic minorities, which was mutually beneficial. History says that Xu Miao "used the money saved by the government to buy the goods with national characteristics that the court needed from the minority markets". Thanks to Xu Miao's painstaking efforts, the Silk Road was unblocked in the northwest, and ethnic trade was restored and more active.

To discuss the northwest ethnic trade in Cao Wei period, we have to mention another important figure-Cang Ci. In order to ensure the smooth flow of the Silk Road and foreign businessmen and their minority businessmen to engage in business activities in the mainland, Cang Ci, as the governor of Dunhuang, Wei Mingdi, implemented a very important measure, issuing them with passes, and local officials and people escorted foreign businessmen in and out.

As we all know, since the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Hexi region has suffered from war trauma, which has seriously affected the normal economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and the local ethnic trade. During the Cao Dynasty, although businessmen from the western regions still came to Dunhuang from time to time to engage in business activities, it was difficult for the local government to effectively protect the normal business activities of foreign businessmen because there was no prefect here for more than 20 years. Local tycoons either obstruct the various business activities of western businessmen, or cheat them and conduct unfair transactions, threatening the interests and safety of foreign and minority businessmen, especially causing strong dissatisfaction among western businessmen, and the number of western businessmen who come to engage in business activities has dropped sharply.

In view of this chronic disease, Cang Ci immediately took measures to ensure the safety and interests of businessmen in the western regions, such as "those who want to profit from Romania are blocked;" If you want to return from the county, the officials will be peaceful, and the affairs in politics will make the officials and the people escort. "That is to say, foreign businessmen such as the Western Regions want to do business in the Mainland, and the local government in Dunhuang will issue them a pass-a place to go; If they are willing to do business locally in Dunhuang, the Dunhuang government will make a fair and reasonable transaction with them with the items hidden in the county treasury. In order to ensure the personal safety of western businessmen, they can be escorted and entertained by officials and people appointed by the local government as soon as they enter Dunhuang.

The implementation of these measures has made foreign businessmen's business activities in Hexi area or the mainland safe, secure and profitable, greatly promoted economic exchanges between China and the West, ensured the smooth flow of the Silk Road and prospered the social economy in the northwest. [8]

Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties is a period of great turmoil in the history of our country, with numerous regimes, economic depression and frequent wars, but at the same time it is an extraordinary era of great ethnic integration, frequent ethnic exchanges and active thoughts. Because of this, the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties were not a dark period in the long history, but showed political pluralism, ethnic exchanges were active in conflicts, the economy rebounded in depression, and the country tended to be unified in wars.

If Han Dynasty and Sui and Tang Dynasties were the two peaks of China feudal society, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties were the lowest of the two peaks. Peaks are often eye-catching and admirable, while valleys are often forgotten and belittled. In fact, the trough is the starting point of another peak, and there is an upward trend in the trough. Without the savings, preparation and upward trend in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the prosperity of Sui and Tang Dynasties would be unimaginable. Northwest China, which is located in the border of the motherland, has something in line with the development of national conditions during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties for more than 300 years, but because of its special geographical location, it has characteristics different from those of the Central Plains and other regions. During this period, there were many separatist forces in the northwest, complicated ethnic relations and frequent wars. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the two pillars of local social economy. The geography, ecological environment, climate characteristics and social reality of multi-ethnic coexistence in northwest China determine that it is not suitable for single economy. After long-term social practice, the working people of all ethnic groups have recognized that moderate farming and animal husbandry is the way out for economic development here. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the economic pattern suitable for agriculture and animal husbandry in northwest China was basically established. Once this economic structure is formed, it will have a far-reaching impact on subsequent history.

During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the main contents of economic development in northwest China included agricultural economy and animal husbandry economy, and the economic and trade between farming nationalities and animal husbandry nationalities also developed. They are interdependent, complementary and indispensable.

When discussing ethnic trade, we have to pay special attention to the development of animal husbandry and ethnic trade in Hexi region during the Northern Wei Dynasty, especially during the periods of Wu Tai (424 ~ 452) and Emperor Xiaowen (47 1 ~ 499), because it represents a type of production and trade of ethnic minority regimes. During the reign of Tuoba Tao in the Northern Wei Dynasty, in view of the need to unify the North and the demand for war horses, he attached great importance to the management of Hexi Corridor, which is famous for its developed animal husbandry in history. As we all know, Hexi is located in the northwest border. In ancient times, there were abundant aquatic plants here, which were suitable for the development of animal husbandry. Appropriate agriculture and animal husbandry are the wisest choices and outlets here. There is a long history of animal husbandry and ethnic exchanges here. Even today, we can still see hundreds of rock paintings in Hexi area, including horses, cows, sheep, elephants, camels, yaks, bison, bighorn sheep and other animals 10, as well as vivid grazing and hunting scenes, vividly showing the sketch of ancient animal husbandry production. In fact, as early as the Western Han Dynasty, there was a saying in Hexi area that "water plants are suitable for grazing, so the livestock in Liangzhou are spared in the world" [9]. The official pasture set up in the northwest in the Han Dynasty had only 30,000 official servants and 300,000 horses. [10] On the basis of the previous generation, the Northern Wei Dynasty gave full play to the advantages of developing animal husbandry here. However, when the Northern Wei Emperor Wu Tai decided to develop animal husbandry and ethnic trade in Hexi, he caused a heated debate in North Korea.

Before the Northern Wei Dynasty unified the North, Hexi area was under the jurisdiction of Beiliang regime. Wu Tai, the talented Northern Wei Emperor, had already taken a keen interest in Hexi area. As early as when Wantong was captured (now Baichengzi, Jingbian, Shaanxi), Wu Tai drew up a plan to attack the cold with a politician's strategic vision and pragmatic spirit, but the objective conditions were not mature, because there was Beiyan in the Central Plains at that time, and the Northern Wei Dynasty had to suspend the Western Expedition. Even so, the Northern Wei Emperor Mao never relaxed his preparations for capturing Hexi. In order to make full preparations for attacking Hexi, Taizu once sent Li Shun, an important official of the dynasty, "ten times to Hexi Corridor in Gansu". [1 1] In the first year of the Northern Wei Dynasty (432), the Northern Wei Dynasty destroyed the Northern Yan. In this way, the vast areas north of Huaihe River and Qinling Mountains, except Beiliang in Hexi area, were all included in the territory of the Northern Wei Dynasty, and the great cause of the Northern Wei Emperor Taizu's unification of the North came to an end. In order to unify the north in the shortest time, Taizu decided to send troops to the west. This decision immediately caused a debate within the highest decision-making level of the Northern Wei Dynasty, which mainly revolved around the understanding of natural conditions in Hexi.

More than 30 aristocrats, such as Hongnong Wang Xijin, agreed that Hexi "has no water and grass", and the invasion of Hexi region with such harsh natural conditions will inevitably encounter the thorny problem of difficult military supplies, and the final outcome can only be in vain. Therefore, they think that it is better to implement a negative but steady "detention" policy than to send troops to Beiliang. [12] Even Li Shun, who has been to Hexi for many times, echoed that the natural environment in Hexi area has deteriorated to the point of "lack of aquatic plants", so it is "not suitable for expedition". In this way, the opinion of not sending troops to Hexi area occupied an absolute advantage among the upper-level decision makers in the Northern Wei Dynasty. Anyone with a little knowledge of history knows that this is nonsense. Only Ho Choi refuted the views of North Korea's westward advance and others. The learned Ho Choi first made a convincing argument from a historical perspective. He stressed: According to the geography of Han Dynasty, the animal husbandry in Liangzhou area is world-famous. If there was little grass and water here in the Northern Wei Dynasty, how did the Han people raise livestock in Hexi and achieve brilliant results? Secondly, there is a tradition in the Han Dynasty that battlements and counties are generally not built in areas without aquatic plants, while Hexi has set up counties as early as the Han Dynasty, and the natural conditions are certainly not very bad; Third, Hexi is rich in snow. When the snow melts in spring and summer, it can irrigate millions of hectares of farmland. How can you say that the land is barren? Li Shun ignored Ho Choi's forceful refutation. He stubbornly insisted: "What you hear is not as good as what you see, and what I see is what I see. How can you refute it? " ? The implication is that only he has the right to speak. As for Ho Choi's opinion, it's just an armchair strategist. In this case, Ho Choi had to expose the fact that Li Shun took bribes from Beiliang. Both sides of the debate have reached a white-hot level. Faced with such a deadlock, Mao pushed his way through the crowd and resolutely accepted Ho Choi's suggestion. In the fifth year of Taiyan (439), he personally set out for Hexi with a large army. When the northern Wei army arrived in Hexi, what they saw was "more aquatic plants, as (Cui) Hao said." The facts have mercilessly exposed Jin He's lies. Taizu witnessed the rich pasture in Hexi Corridor, which can be used by 654.38+ 10,000 troops for several years. The gushing spring around the ancient Tibetan city winds from the west to the north, like a river, and many ditches extend to the desert. At that time, the registered permanent residence of the ancient Tibetan city alone reached 200,000, showing the prosperity of the Hexi Corridor.

It can be seen that the argument between Ho Choi and Hongnong Wang Xijin, Li Shun and others is not only related to whether the Northern Wei Dynasty directly sent troops to Hexi, but also related to the decision-making of Hexi development, so it is of great significance in the history of Hexi and even northwest development. The central government of the Northern Wei Dynasty directly sent envoys to various places to learn about the specific situation of counties and counties, and used it as an important basis for decision-making, making accurate responses and judgments in time, which was a very important part of the decision-making process. Emperor Wu Tai of the Northern Wei Dynasty resolutely adopted Ho Choi's suggestion for two main reasons. First, the proposal is in line with the general trend of the Northern Wei Dynasty to unify the vast areas in the north, and second, it is in line with the decision of the Northern Wei Dynasty to open Hexi area as an animal husbandry base. After the Northern Wei Dynasty brought Beiliang into the territory by force, it immediately took a series of positive and effective measures to develop Hexi, especially the animal husbandry here. In this way, the Northern Wei Dynasty turned the temple dispute before sending troops to Hexi into a decision to develop the animal husbandry economy in Hexi. After the development of animal husbandry in Hexi was put on the agenda, Emperor Taizu personally visited Hexi several times to understand the local specific situation. [14] We know that during the Sixteen Kingdoms period, there were many political powers in the northwest region, and ethnic contradictions were sharp and complicated. People of all ethnic groups suffered from war and their production was destroyed. As Emperor Taizu said after many rounds of inspection, Hexi area is "a battle for years, a battle for transportation, the hardships of the people, and a waste of agriculture." Therefore, the government of the Northern Wei Dynasty decided to adopt a preferential policy of light and thin taxation in Hexi area. [15] This has played a positive role in restoring the war wound and developing the animal husbandry economy in Hexi area as soon as possible.

In order to give full play to the natural advantages of "the beauty of aquatic plants in Hexi" and the historical tradition of "diligent cultivation and more grazing" of local people [16], Emperor Wu Tai of the Northern Wei Dynasty decided to develop Hexi area into a "pasture"-an animal husbandry base in the Northern Wei Dynasty. In order to implement this decision, the Northern Wei Dynasty also recruited some prisoners of war and animal husbandry nationalities in Beiliang as "shepherds" and "shepherds", and placed special grazing on the spot to solve the thorny problem of serious shortage of manpower for animal husbandry development in Hexi area. These effective measures, together with Taizu's many personal visits, have promoted the development of local national animal husbandry economy, thus achieving obvious economic and social benefits. According to historical records, after the Northern Wei Dynasty opened Hexi as an animal husbandry base, after several years of painstaking efforts, there was a grand occasion of "animal husbandry production: more than two million horses, half camels and countless cattle and sheep" [17]. During the Northern Wei Dynasty, there were more than 2 million horses and 6,543.8+100,000 camels in Hexi Animal Husbandry Base, but the cattle and sheep could not be counted. Such economic benefits of animal husbandry are unique in Hexi area and even in the development history of feudal society in China. The rapid development of animal husbandry in Hexi region provided enough war horses and necessary livestock products for the Northern Wei Dynasty's unification war, and also provided essential support for the recovery and development of agricultural production in the northern region. With the development of Hexi animal husbandry base, it is necessary to strengthen management and have a series of supporting measures. In this way, the government of the Northern Wei Dynasty set up a special organization-Driving Department, whose functions are "knowing cows, horses, donkeys and mules". [18] The senior minister of Driving Department is mainly responsible for the affairs of government-run pastures. In this way, the northern Wei government brought the animal husbandry production in Hexi area into the overall planning of the central dynasty.

During the reign of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty (47 1 ~ 499), Tuoba Hong made great efforts to make innovations. On the basis of Wu Tai, he not only vigorously developed the animal husbandry economy in Hexi area, but also gradually developed the animal husbandry in Binzhou (now Taiyuan City, Shanxi Province) based on the official pasture in Hexi. As recorded in the history books:

He moved from Hexi to Bingzhou every year, and gradually turned south, hoping that he would learn from the soil and water without casualties and grazing in Hexi. [ 19]

This measure of gradually extending animal husbandry from Hexi to southeast is scientific even today. On the one hand, the livestock migrating to Bingzhou gradually adapt to the local aquatic plants and climate, on the other hand, it also expands the way out for the products of the highly developed official pasture in Hexi area. Hexi region has become an important production base of northern war horses, furs, meat and fine livestock varieties, which not only has far-reaching significance to the military strength, economic development and improvement of residents' lives in the Northern Wei Dynasty, but also has a direct impact on the history after the Northern Wei Dynasty. Moreover, the development of animal husbandry economy in Hexi region has further provided sufficient commodities for the national trade of all ethnic groups.

To discuss the ethnic trade in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, we have to mention the Tuguhun ethnic group, which had a great influence on the northwest region. Brief Introduction of Biography of Zu Ti in the Book of Jin;

Schleswig-Schleswig and Zu Ti wrote a book, asking to enter the market instead of reporting the book. They listened to the common market and earned ten times the interest. []20

National trade is a mutually beneficial economic behavior of both sides of the trade. Tuguhun had frequent contacts with the Northern Dynasties. According to Shu Wei's incomplete statistics, during the period of 43 1 ~ 520 and 190, there were as many as 64 exchanges between them, ranking first among the times that local governments of border ethnic minorities paid tribute to the Northern Wei Dynasty. [2 1] Not only that, Tuguhun often sends envoys to other central plains local governments for trade. History says that the Western Wei Dynasty abolished the emperor for two years (553 years), and Tuyuhun praised Lu:

..... Also sent people to the State of Qi. When Shi Ningkun, the secretariat of Liangzhou (Western Wei Dynasty), knew that it was still there, he rode and attacked Xizhi Spring in the state, taking away his servants, begging for touch boards, general Zhai Panmi, 240 businessmen, 600 camels and mules, and tens of thousands of colorful silks. [22]

Even in the state of separatism, the national mutual market still maintains a considerable scale. At that time, Tuguhun paid mainly yaks, horses and processed livestock products, and exchanged mainly silk and silk. Liang Shu (Volume 54) and Zhurong in Northwest Zhu Yi recorded that in the 15th year of Tian Jian (5 16), Tuguhun sent an envoy to pay tribute to the Liang Dynasty, "dancing dragons and horses, so that he could come again at the age of one, or at the age of one".

As for the mutual market engaged by the people at that time, the number was even larger. The soul of the ancient earth "often associates with merchants, and people admire their interests, learn from them, teach their secretaries and translate them."

During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the social order in Hexi area was relatively stable, the economy was relatively prosperous, and the transactions between ethnic groups were frequent. For example, in 546, the twelfth year of the unification of western Wei Wendi, businessmen from the western regions came to Hexi region to trade. At that time, Han Bao, the secretariat of Xiliangzhou, advocated and protected the national trade with the western regions, and regarded it as an important content of developing local social economy: "When goods arrive in the western regions, poor cities are exhausted first, so the rich and the poor are gradually leveled, and the household registration is stable" [23] has received good economic and social benefits. According to historical records, in the Northern Zhou Dynasty, "Hexi counties used gold, silver and money from the western regions, and officials could do anything" [24] was quite telling.

Ethnic trade was very active in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, which laid the foundation for ethnic trade and even international trade here in Sui and Tang Dynasties. As an international trade city in Sui and Tang Dynasties, Zhangye experienced a forming process at least from the Northern Dynasty. [25]

To annotate ...

[1] Shang Xian: Millennium Tea Law and Tea Administration (I), published in the third volume of Pingjing Magazine, China Commercial Press, 1986 edition.

[2] "Six Classics of the Tang Dynasty" Volume 22 "Zhu Hu Shi Jian" Note.

[3] "Hanshu" Volume 96 "Biography of the Western Regions".

[4] "Hanshu" Volume 96 "Biography of the Western Regions".

[5] Li Jiannong: Draft of Economic History of Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties, p. 82, Zhonghua Book Company, 1963.

[6] "The reflection of Shu Wei" Volume 27 "Biography of Xu Miao". See Book of Jin, Volume 26, Record of Food Goods.

[7] Biography of the Three Kingdoms Shu Wei (Volume 16) Biography of Cang Ci.

[8] The History of the Three Kingdoms Shu Wei (volume 16) and Biography of Cang Ci recorded that Cang Ci took a series of measures to protect foreign businessmen and minority businessmen during his administration in Dunhuang, and achieved good results. "It is because people die suddenly that they are called moral."

[9] "Hanshu" Volume 28 geography.

[10] Notes in the Book of Han Dynasty (Volume 5) Biography of Jingdi, such as the Notes on Hanyi quoted by Chun: "Thirty-six monk gardens in the north and west. Take Lang as the court supervisor, with 30,000 officials and 300,000 horses. "

[1 1] Shu Wei Volume 36 Li Shunchuan.

[12] Shu Wei Volume 35 Cui Haochuan.

[13] Shu Wei Volume 35 Cui Haochuan.

[14] "Wu Di Ji" Volume 4.

[15] "Wu Di Ji" Volume 4.

[16] Sui Shu Vol.29 Geography.

[17] Shuweijuan 1 10 Food Description.

[18] Shuweijuan 1 10 Food Description; The official record of Shuweijuan 1 13.

[19] Shuweijuan 1 10 Food Description; The Book of Southern Qi (Volume 57) and Biography of Wei Lu.

[20] "Book of Jin" Volume 62 "Biography of Zu Ti".

[2 1] Cui Yonghong: Economic History of Qinghai (scroll), p. 66, Qinghai People's Publishing House, 1998.

[22] "Zhou Shu" Volume 50 "Tu Gu Hun handed down from other places". See also Shu Wei's Biography of Tugu Hun (Volume 10 1).

[23] "Gansu Fu Zhi" Volume 1 "Century".

[24]' Sui Shu' Volume XXIV' Shihuozhi'.

[25] Li See Qingling editor: "Gansu Economic History", the first 102 ~ 103 page, Lanzhou University Press, 1996.