What are the burial methods in China?

First, the main funeral methods and tomb types in ancient China.

(a) The mode of funeral (read the following)

Due to the differences in natural conditions in different regions, ideas and traditional customs of different nationalities, many funeral methods for dealing with deceased relatives have been formed in the history of our country.

Mainly includes: burial, cremation, water burial, celestial burial, hanging coffin burial, etc.

Burial: Burial is a method of burying the deceased in a wooden or stone coffin, buried in an underground cave excavated or built, and covered with soil. This method is widely used in China, whether in the region or in the crowd class, and it is also the main mausoleum architectural landscape used for tourism today.

Cremation: Cremation is a way of funeral in which the deceased is burned with fire and the incombustible bones are collected and stored. Ancient Buddhist monks used cremation, and the pagoda buildings inside or outside the Buddhist temple were places for storing the ashes of monks who had practiced to a certain extent. This kind of building is an integral part of Buddhist architecture. After the founding of New China, cremation was generally advocated in order to avoid the reduction of limited arable land. At present, cremation has become the main way of funeral.

Water burial: Water burial is a common funeral method for people who have lived in water for a long time.

Celestial burial: Celestial burial means that the body is divided by a fixed person in a fixed place and buried after being eaten by vultures. The lighter you eat, the better This method is adopted by Tibetans, Menba and some Yugurs in China.

The fixed place of celestial burial is called celestial burial field, which is a flat-topped boulder near the hillside, generally about 20 square meters. There should be many big pits on the boulder to crush human bones. The person who completes the celestial burial is generally a fixed person, called the celestial burial master. In order to let all the bodies be eaten by vultures, celestial burial has its fixed procedures.

Hanging coffin burial: Hanging coffin burial is a funeral way in which the deceased is placed in a boat-shaped coffin, the coffin is hung on a cliff by the water, and the body is naturally dried. This method was often used in ancient Jiangnan mountainous areas. Up to now, hanging coffins can still be seen on the cliff walls of scenic spots such as the Three Gorges of the Yangtze River and Wuyishan.

(2) Mausoleum type

Mausoleum: it is the general name of the place where the remains of the dead are placed and the dead are commemorated.

If viewed separately, the mausoleum generally refers to the above-ground buildings, while the tomb is the underground part. At present, the landscape of tombs used for tourism in China can be divided into three categories: no tombs, no tombs and tombs.

1, No Mausoleum and No Tomb: Among the above five burial methods, celestial burial, water burial and hanging coffin burial all belong to this category, and the bodies either disappear or remain in nature.

2. There are tombs without tombs: there are tombs without tombs, that is, there are buildings or tombstones on the ground for commemoration, and there are no tombs and bodies underground. There are two reasons for this:

(1) Dead bodies don't exist. For ancestors with a long history and heroes who can't find their bodies, people built their memorial sites, such as Huangdi Mausoleum and Yandi Mausoleum, to express their grief. Chinese sons and daughters at home and abroad are all descendants of the Chinese people, with the same roots. It is the common wish of generations of China people to worship their ancestors, so many tombs of the Yellow Emperor were built. In memory of China's heroes who fought in the battlefield in ancient and modern times, later generations built a monument for them.

(2) Mausoleum and tomb are not in the same place. In the history of Mongols, their nobles have a tradition of secret burial. According to the book Caomuzi, the aristocrat died and was buried in a grassland with abundant water and grass. After the burial, ten thousand horses stepped over this place. At the same time, she killed her calf in front of the mother camel at the burial site. After that, nearly a thousand people were sent here to wait for the people to leave next spring when the green grass is everywhere and the burial place is unrecognizable. If you want to pay homage, just follow the female camel of that year. The place where it stopped to make a sad cry was the cemetery. It is because of this tradition that people have different views on where Genghis Khan's grave is. At present, Genghis Khan Mausoleum, located in the south of Ordos Plateau in Inner Mongolia, is located in Yijinhuoluo Banner, in which only the tomb of its empty coffin is placed, but there is no tomb.

3. There are tombs and tombs, that is, the hall where the memorial ceremony is held is sealed, and there are catacombs and corpses. This is a common way of burial. Today, the main body of the architectural landscape of the mausoleum used for tourism is this type of mausoleum.

Second, the composition of the mausoleum landscape and its tourism value

The composition of the mausoleum landscape includes three parts: first, the mausoleum building, including ground buildings, catacombs and coffins; Second, the painting, sculpture and other cultural arts on the mausoleum building; The third is the object of sacrifice. (remember)

Ancient people in China believed that death was only the end of physical life, and the soul still existed, just from death to death. In order to make your life in the underworld the same as before, everything you use, all the activities you engage in, all the scenes you experience or your understanding of nature should be taken to the grave or painted on the walls of coffins and graves. In any historical stage, the higher the status of the tomb owner before his death, the richer the life content before his death, and the richer the composition of the mausoleum landscape. Among all human beings, emperors and nobles have the highest status, and the historical original appearance reflected by the landscape content of their tombs is the most substantial and comprehensive. It is a favorable basis for future generations to understand and understand the lost world, and it is also the most valuable evidence to make up for the lost dynastic history in written materials. More importantly, these authentic historical relics are conducive to tracing the cultural and historical origins.

The tombs of emperors, princes and nobles are the main targets of modern tourism development. (remember)

Thirdly, the evolution of the funeral system of ancient emperors in China.

(A) the evolution of the ancient imperial burial system

The burial system of ancient emperors in China experienced the evolution from single burial system to group burial system. (remember)

1, single burial system

The so-called single burial system means that an emperor has a complete mausoleum. Choose scattered points, the cemetery is independent. (remember)

Emperors before Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty were buried in this way. Famous mausoleums include the Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang in Lintong, Shaanxi. (remember)

2. Burial system

The so-called burial system means that there are tombs of relatives, heroes and nobles outside the imperial cemetery, forming a mausoleum area centered on the tombs of a generation of emperors. (remember)

This burial system began in the Han Dynasty, and in the Tang Dynasty, it has become a fixed system for ministers to be buried with them. Famous mausoleums include Maoling of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty in Maoling County, Shaanxi Province, and Ganling where Tang Gaozong Li Zhi and Wu Zetian were buried in Ganxian County, Shaanxi Province. (remember)

3. Collective burial system

The so-called mass burial system means that the tombs of emperors, queens and children of the same dynasty are concentrated in one cemetery. (remember)

This burial system began in the Northern Song Dynasty and has been used since the Ming and Qing Dynasties. This mass burial system also influenced Xixia, the Tangut Qiang dynasty at the same time as the Song Dynasty.

There are six such tombs: the tomb of the Emperor of the Northern Song Dynasty in Gongxian County, Henan Province; Located in Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province, the mausoleum area of the Southern Song Emperor; Qing Dongling in Zunhua, Hebei Province and Qing Xiling in Yixian County; Xixia Mausoleum at the foot of Helan Mountain in Yinchuan, Ningxia; The Ming Tombs in Beijing. (Be sure to remember)

(2) The evolution of the enclosure form of ancient imperial tombs

Form of soil sealing: it is a system about the shape and scale of soil piled on the emperor's tomb. Building a large mausoleum is the stipulation of filial piety in China's feudal ethics, and it is also the maintenance of the "luxury life" arranged by the emperor after his death. The concept of "filial piety and deep burial" originated from the Zhou Dynasty. Since the Zhou Dynasty, the shape of the Mausoleum has gone through the evolution process of "building a square", "being a mausoleum because of mountains" and "being a treasure city and a treasure top". (Be sure to remember)

"Over the barrel" type: it is a square rammed earth platform, and the loess is piled up above the underground palace, shrinking step by step, shaped like an inverted bucket. From the Zhou Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty, most dynasties adopted this form of fief. Later, it was selected by the Song Dynasty. Among many tombs with this earth seal shape, the tomb of Qin Shihuang is the largest.

"Because the mountain is the mausoleum" style: The mausoleum is built on the mountain, with the whole mountain as the tomb, which is magnificent. This method was used to seal the tombs of the emperors of the Tang Dynasty.

"Baocheng Baoding" style: above the underground palace, a circular (or oval) wall is built with bricks, filled with loess and compacted, and the top is made into a dome. The round wall is called Baocheng, and the dome is Baoding. This shape was used in Ming and Qing dynasties, and the treasure in Qing dynasty was oval at most.

(3) The evolution of the architectural layout of the ancient royal cemetery.

The cemetery complex of emperors' tombs in past dynasties consists of three parts:

One is the sacrificial complex, which is built in front of the tomb and is a closed square courtyard. The gate of the courtyard is called Yi 'en Gate. There are a main hall, Yi 'en Hall and two side halls in the courtyard.

The second is Shinto, which is a road from the entrance of the cemetery to the entrance of Yan 'an.

The third is the place where people who guard the mausoleum for the emperor live, which is called Lingwei. (Be sure to remember)

The whole cemetery is surrounded by walls, like the emperor's palace, and it is not allowed to enter casually. Imperial tombs are built in scenic areas, and a cemetery is a natural garden. Before Sui Dynasty, the cemetery buildings were mainly sacrificial buildings and tomb-guarding buildings, with short Shinto and few stone men and beasts. Among them, the mausoleum guard in the Han Dynasty was the largest, and officials and rich people from all over the country moved to the mausoleum area to guard the cemetery for the emperor. So a mausoleum area has formed a prosperous city.

Since the Tang Dynasty, Shinto in the mausoleum has been lengthened, and the number of stone statues on both sides of Shinto has been determined as 18 pairs. Among them, Li Zhi and Emperor Wu Zetian have the longest Ganling Shinto and the most stone statues. On the Shinto, which is about eight miles long, there are 6 1 statues of minority leaders and foreign envoys in the Tang Dynasty, in addition to the traditional 18 pair of heads of man and beast.

The main road of the Ming Tombs Cemetery 14 miles long, and the sacrificial building is composed of three courtyards. At the same time, Fangcheng Minglou was built in front of Baocheng Baoding.

(d) Evolution of underground palace structure of ancient imperial tombs.

According to the underground palaces of various dynasties recorded and excavated in historical books, the tombs and coffins of emperors before the early Han Dynasty were mostly made of stone. During the Western Han Dynasty, the underground palace was mainly built with special wood. Generally, the cypress is peeled and cut into squares of equal length, and the head-to-heart type is on the periphery of the wooden coffin, showing a square tomb. Square trees are tenon-mortise structures, and the gaps are sealed with charcoal and paste. This underground palace is called "yellow sausage puzzle".

After the Eastern Han Dynasty, coffins were all made of wood. Underground palaces, except those directly built in caves excavated in the Tang Dynasty, are all made of bricks and stones. Before the Song Dynasty, the underground palace was mostly brick, and the walls were painted with the activities of the tomb owner before his death.

From the Ming Dynasty, the underground palace reached its peak, and huge stone slabs were used to build large tombs. Judging from the tombs that have been opened so far, there are no paintings or carvings except the Buddha statues carved on the side walls of Ganlong Tomb. The layout of the tombs of emperors in past dynasties should be the same as the layout of the palaces where they lived before their death, with multiple connected spaces representing the courtyards arranged in front of and behind.

(V) The evolution of martyrdom system

The person or thing buried with the deceased is a sacrifice. The sacrificial objects of ordinary people are only the main daily necessities and beloved objects before their death. As the sacrificial object of the emperor, in addition to the above items, it also includes the production tools, scientific inventions, musical instruments, weapons, various important books, chronicles, works of art, jewelry and even species when he was in power. The characters in funerary objects in Shang and Zhou Dynasties were martyred for the living. At the end of the warring States period, a large number of martyrdom caused a shortage of labor, so it was changed to the martyrdom system. However, human martyrdom has not been completely eliminated. According to records, all the infertile concubines of Qin Shihuang were buried with them. After the death of Emperor Judy of the Ming Dynasty, 30 maids were hanged and buried with him.

Four, China's existing famous ancient tombs.

There are two ways to display the existing ancient mausoleum landscape in China:

In the first way, the scale of ground and underground buildings is very large, and they are open for display on site under strict protection. Such as the Terracotta Warriors and Horses of Qin Shihuang's Mausoleum; The Han Tomb in Tianshan Mountain in Yangzhou and the underground palace of the Prince of Beijing have been restored. Sacrificial architecture of the Ming Tombs and the underground palace of Dingling; Qing Dongling and Qing Xiling, etc.

In the second way, if the underground scale and layout are inconvenient for people to move, it is necessary to concentrate on reproduction. For example, the China No.1 Tomb Museum in Luoyang displays dozens of Eastern Han tombs in Mangshan.

(a) the famous mausoleum

The famous tombs are: Huangdi Mausoleum, Genghis Khan Mausoleum and Qin Shihuang Mausoleum. (remember)

1, Huangdi Mausoleum: Huangdi Mausoleum is the oldest preserved mausoleum in China and the ancestor of Xuanyuan Huangdi of all ethnic groups in the Central Plains. It was first built in the Spring and Autumn Period. "Historical Records" contains: "The Yellow Emperor collapsed and buried Qiao Shan". Qiao Shan is located in the north of huangling county City, Shaanxi Province, with a total area of more than 8,500 mu and more than 86,000 cypress trees, most of which are over 1000 years old. It is the largest cypress group in China. Huangdi Mausoleum is located at the top of Qiao Shan, and Xuanyuan Temple echoes it at the foot of the mountain. (Be sure to remember)

Huangdi Mausoleum is a mound, which is said to be a crown mound. Its height is 3. 6 meters, perimeter 48 meters, area 200 square meters, all around 1. 87-meter-high brick wall. A stone tablet stands in front of the mausoleum. The book "Arowana on the Bridge" was founded in Jiajing period of Ming Dynasty. There is a 18 column memorial pavilion in front of the monument, and there is a "Huangdi Mausoleum" monument inscribed by Guo Moruo.

There is a high mound outside the mountain gate in the south of the cemetery. In front of the mound stood a stone tablet that read "Hanwu Sendai". It was the triumphant return of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Passing by, this platform was built to worship the first emperor.

2. Genghis Khan Mausoleum Genghis Khan Mausoleum is located in the southern part of Ordos Plateau in Inner Mongolia, above Gandeli Aobao (earth-rock mountain) in Ejinhoro Banner. The cemetery covers a total area of over 40,000 square meters, with a building area of 1.500 square meters. The architectural modeling of the mausoleum is the product of the combination of Mongolian and Chinese cultures and has a strong national style. The whole building complex consists of stone archway, Lingxingmen and Linggong, and a spacious and tidy stone carving path with a length of more than 380 meters connects the three parts in series into a whole.

Four-pillar and three-door white marble archway is the gate of mausoleum area, and its shape is the traditional form of China culture. However, the four yurts on the top of the four pillars have a strong color of Mongolian traditional culture. From a distance, Lingxing Gate without a gatehouse looks like a closed Great Wall. The top of the whole Lingxing gate wall is a crib wall with two yurts on it. The main body of the mausoleum palace consists of three interconnected Mongolian-style halls. The central hall is 24 meters high. 8 1 m, blue and yellow glazed tiles form moire on the top, golden dome on the top and blue octagonal double eaves on the side. Eight built-in giant pillars are decorated with flying dragons. The east and west halls are all 18 meters high, with the same roof type as the main hall, the same hall and single eaves.

The tall sitting statue of Genghis Khan carved in white marble is placed in the center of the main hall, and the legendary sword, helmet and bow and arrow of Genghis Khan are displayed on both sides. The back hall is dedicated to three Mongolian tombs covered with yellow satin, and the coffins of Genghis Khan and his family are parked on the square table inside. Murals are painted on the inner walls of the halls and corridors of the mausoleum palace, depicting Genghis Khan's military career, great achievements, Mongolian social conditions, religious beliefs, living customs and so on. The cemetery also displays artifacts used in the war that year.

3. Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang: The Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang is located at the foot of Lishan Mountain in Lintong, Shaanxi. Among the imperial tombs with single burial system in past dynasties, the mausoleum of Qin Shihuang is the largest. The Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor was rated as the eighth ancient wonder in the world, and was listed as the common heritage of people all over the world in 1977. (Be sure to remember)

The outer wall of the cemetery is rectangular, with a circumference of 6. 3 kilometers; The inner wall is approximately square with a circumference of 2. 5 kilometers. The measured length of the bottom of the square tomb is 345 meters from east to west and 350 meters from north to south. In the cemetery, there are no sacrificial buildings on the ground. At present, there are three chariots and horses pits, one stable pit, 365,438+0 figurine pits, 365,438+0 rare birds and animals pits, 65,438+003 grave pits and 65,438+08 tombs of court officials. According to records, the underground palace is a sarcophagus, topped by the sun, moon and stars made of jewels and jade, rivers filled with mercury, geese made of gold and silver, turtle fish made of glass, whales carved with jade and so on. And set up crossbows and arrows to poison the organs to prevent robbery. In recent years, the air above the tomb was measured, and it was found that the mercury vapor content was unusually high. 1974 The No.1 Terracotta Warriors Pit contains more than 6,000 figurines and horse figurines, which, like real horses, reproduces the military capabilities of the war more than 2,000 years ago. This sensational discovery made the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor named as the eighth ancient miracle in the world, and was listed as the common heritage of people all over the world in 1977. 1980, another bronze chariot pit was dug on the west side of the mausoleum. There are two bronze chariots and horses, the size is 1/2. Each chariot consists of four horses, an emperor figurine and a chariot, which is complete in structure and lifelike. More than 3,000 parts made of gold, silver and copper are not only exquisite in technology, but also can rotate freely up to now. The excavation of bronze chariots and horses has enabled countries all over the world to have a deeper understanding of China's civilization more than 2,000 years ago.

(2) the famous mausoleum

The famous tombs are: Ming Tombs, Qing Dongling and Xiling. (remember)

Ming Tombs: The Ming Tombs are located in a small basin at the foot of Tianshou Mountain in Changping County, northwest of Beijing, with an area of 40 square kilometers. It is one of the three royal tombs in China in Ming and Qing Dynasties. Thirteen emperors and many empresses were buried here after the Ming Dynasty established Beijing as its capital. Thirteen imperial tombs are fan-shaped distributed in the foothills of the basin. The whole mausoleum area consists of a main deity and twelve sub-deities, which form a Shinto network leading to the mausoleum. Judy's tomb is located at the top of this main road. The tombs of emperors in past dynasties are symmetrically distributed on both sides of the main mausoleum according to the relationship between generations. The underground palace is closed with a circular or oval roof. In front of the underground palace is the Fangcheng Ming Building, which has a memorial number plate. In front of the Ming building is the sacrificial complex of Sanjin Courtyard. Stone statues and other ornaments on Shinto Road are arranged on both sides of the Lord God Road. Next to each mausoleum, there is a "grave keeper" to look after and clean the mausoleum. The underground tombs of the Ming Tombs are all made of huge stones, forming an "underground palace" connected with several tombs.

The Ming Tombs are famous for their magnificent long mausoleum above ground and the only Dingling mausoleum that opens the underground palace.

2. Dong Qing and Xiling

Qing Dongling: Located in the west of Malanyu, Zunhua, Hebei Province, at the foot of Changrui Mountain, with an area of about 2,500 square kilometers. Qing Xiling: Located at the foot of Yongning Mountain in Yixian County, Hebei Province, with an area of 225 square kilometers. Eastern and Western Mausoleums in Qing Dynasty: After Beijing became the capital of Qing Dynasty, the two major mausoleums of the emperor and empress. It is a royal mausoleum group with large scale and complete architectural system in China. Its architectural system structure is basically the same as that of the Ming Tombs.

Qing Dongling: Five emperors, Shunzhi, Kangxi, Qianlong, Xianfeng and Tongzhi, were buried together 14 1 concubines. The underground palaces of Yuling and Cixiling during the Qianlong period have been excavated and opened to the public (please remember).

The walls, rolling roofs and stone gates of Yuling Underground Palace are embossed with Buddha statues, patterns and scriptures, and the gatehouse is carved with eaves, ridges, kisses and arches, just like a wooden structure. Among the tombs and underground palaces excavated in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, it is the most luxurious and unique. Among the tombs in Dongling, Cixi's mausoleum is the most magnificent. The dragon and phoenix stone in front of the temple has been carved, with a phoenix on the top and a dragon on the bottom, and the dragon dances with the phoenix, with a vivid expression. Brick carvings are embedded in the inner walls of the East-West Annex Buildings, and the painted beams and ceilings of the bucket arches are all gold-plated. The bright pillars of the hall are decorated with golden dragons, and the hall is magnificent.

Qing Xiling Mausoleum: Four emperors Yongzheng, Jiaqing, Daoguang and Guangxu and their empresses were buried together. (Be sure to remember)

3. Ganling

Ganling: It is the burial tomb of the third generation emperor Li Zhi and Empress Wu Zetian in the Tang Dynasty. Located in Liangshan, Gan County, Shaanxi Province. (remember)

Ganling: The main peak in the north is the mausoleum, and the two peaks in the south are the tombs. The mausoleum area imitates the pattern of Chang 'an City in Tang Dynasty, with an outer wall of more than 80 miles. There are more than 120 large stone carvings on both sides of Shinto, and there are 17 tombs with princes, nobles and heroes. It is the crown of the imperial mausoleum in the Tang Dynasty. According to data records and archaeological excavations, Ganling may be the only imperial mausoleum in the Tang Dynasty that has not been stolen. So far, the underground palace has not been excavated. Among the large stone carvings, two kinds are famous for their uniqueness: one is a tablet without words, which is as high as 7. 53 meters, a complete boulder, with no words at first. There are at least two reasons for words. One is that Wu Zetian's "great achievements" are difficult to express in words; One said that Wu Zetian thought that her merits and demerits should be evaluated by future generations, so there was no word. Now, the inscription on the tablet is the inscription of later generations when they traveled to Shanghai, and the content is mostly an evaluation of the history of Wu Zhou. The second is the stone statues of foreign figures on Shinto.

Five, the famous modern mausoleum in China.

(1) Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum is the mausoleum of Dr. Sun Yat-sen. It is located at the southern foot of Maoshan Mountain, the second highest peak in the middle of Zhongshan in the eastern suburb of Nanjing. It was built in June of 1926 and completed in the spring of 1929. In June of the same year, the body of Dr. Sun Yat-sen was removed from Biyun Temple in Xiangshan, Beijing for burial. Mausoleum is Muduo-style, built on the mountain, rising from south to north step by step, followed by memorial archway, tomb gate, monument hall, platform, and finally memorial hall and tomb room. The elevation of the tomb is158m, the entrance to the tomb is more than 700m, and there are 392 stone steps. A statue of Sun Yat-sen was carved on the altar. Sun Yat-sen's revolutionary deeds are embossed all around, and his posthumous work "Outline of the Establishment of People's Republic of China (PRC)" is engraved on the wall. Behind the altar is a spherical tomb. In the middle is a round marble cave and in the middle is a rectangular tomb. On the coffin, there is a portrait of Sun Yat-sen lying in the grave.

Chairman Mao Memorial Hall is located at the southern end of Tiananmen Square. Commencement in June 1976 1 1, and completion in August of the following year. This is a building facing north, facing the north and south of Tiananmen Square. The memorial hall is a magnificent square building with China national style. On the purple granite colonnade, the roof covered with golden glazed tiles is held high, and the huge white marble plaque with golden characters of "Chairman Mao Memorial Hall" is inlaid right above the gate. There are two groups of large sculptures on both sides of the memorial hall, surrounded by flowers and trees from all over the country. The whole building is magnificent and solemn.

The memorial hall consists of three parts: the North Pavilion, the Sightseeing Pavilion and the South Pavilion. In the center of the North Hall is a 3-meter-high statue of Chairman Mao carved with white marble. A giant velvet embroidery depicting the mountains and rivers of the motherland hangs on the back wall, which is a place for mourning activities. The memorial is the core of the memorial. The white marble wall in the front of the hall is inlaid with the golden characters "The great leader and mentor, Chairman Mao Zedong, is immortal". There is a crystal coffin in the center of the hall, and Chairman Mao's body is covered with party flag, the producer of China. On the white marble wall of the hall, the words "Manjiang Covenant" written by Chairman Mao are engraved. In Comrade Guo's Jin pen, there is a lounge on the east and west sides. In February, the memorial halls of Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Liu Shaoqi and Zhu De were established.