What was the craft from the Three Kingdoms to the Song Dynasty?

① Low temperature glazed pottery

Due to the gradual popularization of porcelain, the pottery industry has obviously declined. Daily utensils are greatly reduced, and pottery is still very popular, but the quality is not as good as that of Han Dynasty. During this period, a castle figure pottery jar was popular in Jiangnan. Low-temperature glazed pottery in the northern region has reached a high level, and the variety has gradually increased, and multi-color glaze has appeared, which laid the foundation for the later Tang tricolor. The pottery art of this period was the most exquisite in the Northern Dynasties. On the basis of inheriting the artistic tradition of the Han Dynasty, it absorbs the nutrients of Buddhist art, pays attention to the depiction of expression techniques, and has various forms. There are civil and military officials, male and female servants, geisha figurines, camels, horses and tomb animals.

② Tang Sancai

On the basis of low-temperature glazed pottery since the Han Dynasty, the famous "three-color" pottery appeared in the Tang Dynasty. Tang Sancai uses white clay as raw material and minerals containing copper, iron, manganese, cobalt and other elements as colorants of glaze, and finally forms colorful and mottled colored glaze. The three colors in the Tang Dynasty were mainly yellow, green, white and ochre. Although blue and black were rare, they were extremely valuable. Among them, yellow, green and white are the most common.

Three-color products in Tang Dynasty can be divided into two categories: utensils and figures. Objects are mainly used for daily necessities, and figurines are mainly used for decoration, which is the most abundant variety in Tang handicraft industry.

When thick funerals prevailed in the Tang Dynasty, three-color funerary wares came into being and developed rapidly, reaching its peak in Kaiyuan. Among them, camels and horses are the most attractive, and horses are used for burial. Tricolor horse is in good shape, strong and vivid. The two camel-carrying figurines unearthed from the tomb of Antang in Xi 'an are treasures among the three-color camels, reflecting the prosperity of the Tang Dynasty.

Tang Sancai was unearthed in many areas along the Silk Road and maritime traffic lines, which proved that it played an important role in the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries at that time.

2. Highly developed porcelain

① Developing Wei-Jin porcelain

During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, mature porcelain developed rapidly and white porcelain was also fired in the north.

Due to less wars, social stability and production development, the southern porcelain manufacturing industry has developed rapidly. As an important birthplace and one of the main producing areas of porcelain, Zhejiang's porcelain burning industry is very prosperous, and at the same time, Jiangsu's porcelain making industry is also developing rapidly. A certain quality of Wu Dong Xi Jin celadon was fired in Yixing, Taihu Lake. After the unification of the Western Jin Dynasty, the porcelain-making industry spread rapidly, and various porcelain-making areas were formed in the early Southern Dynasties.

Southern porcelain is generally divided into two categories: one is daily utensils, and round utensils are all drawn from blanks, with uniform tire wall thickness and regular shape. It was also popular to mold porcelain into animal images in the Western Jin Dynasty. The other is funerary objects, which gradually decreased after the Eastern Jin Dynasty.

The raw material of porcelain is local porcelain clay, which is finely processed, and the tires are mostly gray, hard and dense. Among them, in the porcelain kiln in Jinhua, Zhejiang Province, the practice of brushing a layer of cosmetic soil on the outer surface of the carcass before glazing appeared. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the method of making porcelain from cosmetic soil was popularized, which played a positive role in expanding the range of raw materials and improving the quality of porcelain burning area. During this period, the glaze layer was uniform, mostly bean green and light cyan, with a small amount of dark gray and black, with good luster. Decorative techniques include carving, painting, die printing, decals, plastic piles, hole carving and so on. , and the content is very rich. However, in the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties, the decorative technique of brown dot painting was widely used, and at the same time, influenced by Buddhist art, the lotus pattern of depiction or bas-relief gradually became popular. At this time, the kiln and firing technology were obviously improved compared with the late Eastern Han Dynasty, thus completely getting rid of the primitiveness of porcelain.

There were frequent wars in the north, and the social economy was destroyed, so the porcelain handicraft industry rose late. Among them, a celadon spittoon unearthed from the tomb of Sima Jinlong and his wife from the fourth year of Yan Xing in the Northern Wei Dynasty to the eighth year of Taihe (AD 474-484) is the representative work of this period. By the Eastern Wei Dynasty and the Northern Qi Dynasty, the northern porcelain industry began to develop.

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, white porcelain appeared in the north. White porcelain of the Northern Dynasty was first seen in Fan Cui's tomb, and its shape was roughly the same as that of celadon of the same period in the North. The tire is white and delicate, the firing temperature is generally higher, and the milky white glaze is applied, which has better luster. Although white porcelain is still in the primary stage at this time, it marks that the porcelain handicraft industry has entered a new period.

② All-round development of porcelain in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties.

During the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, the porcelain handicraft industry entered a period of all-round development. The field of porcelain production has been expanding. In addition to the original location, Wangcheng in Hunan, Changsha, Jingdezhen in Jiangxi, Gongxian in Henan and Quyang in Hebei also started to burn porcelain. Shangyu Kiln and Xiangyin Kiln entered their heyday one after another, and various famous kilns with their own characteristics were formed nationwide, such as Yue Kiln, Wuzhou Kiln, Shouzhou Kiln, Hongzhou Kiln and Xing Kiln.

During this period, the quality of porcelain was significantly improved, and craftsmen further mastered the properties of raw materials, making the fired celadon crystal clear, the black porcelain deep slippery, and the white porcelain developed rapidly, forming a pattern of "blue in the south and white in the north".

Celadon is a large product in this period, mainly produced in the south and also in the north, but with different styles. Among many celadon kilns, Zhejiang Yue Kiln has the best firing quality, representing the highest level of celadon production at that time. There are many other kilns, such as Changsha Kiln in the early Tang Dynasty, which boldly adopted the method of brown-green painting under glaze, opening up a new way for celadon production.

White porcelain is the main variety produced in the north during this period, and the most famous one is Xingyao in Hebei Province. Xing kiln mainly fires white porcelain, with a wide variety of utensils and unpretentious shapes, which can be divided into coarse white porcelain and fine white porcelain. Besides Xing Kiln, Gong Kiln in Henan is also famous.

At the same time, there are also twisted porcelain. The twisted tire porcelain is made by mixing white and brown porcelain clay and then drawing. In this way, white and brown textures appeared on the porcelain tire, and then transparent glaze was applied and fired in the kiln, which became the twisted tire porcelain.

③ Highly developed Song Dynasty porcelain

Porcelain-making technology in Song Dynasty was highly developed, and "Song Porcelain" became one of the world-famous handicrafts. It is not only complete in variety, but also famous kilns all over the country. In order to master famous kilns and establish official kilns for the royal family in Song Dynasty, different styles of folk kilns and official kilns were formed. The varieties of porcelain in Song Dynasty can be summarized into four kinds: blue, white, black and colorful. Each type presents a variety of styles due to different places of origin. The famous kilns are Ru kiln, Ding kiln, Jun kiln, Longquan kiln, Yaozhou kiln, Cizhou kiln, Jizhou kiln, Jian Yao kiln and Jingdezhen kiln. By the Song Dynasty, craftsmen had mastered a variety of firing techniques and decorative techniques. For example, the kiln is famous for firing black glazed porcelain. The glazed porcelain is very varied, and beautiful markings such as "silver star spot", "rabbit hair spot", "partridge spot" and "hawksbill spot" often appear. Jingdezhen kiln workers add a little iron to the transparent glaze and burn it into the famous "shadow celadon". At this time, the manufacturing method of China porcelain spread to eastern and western countries, which made great contributions to the development of world culture.

Shu brocade and Song brocade complement each other.

From the Three Kingdoms to the Jin Dynasty, Sichuan's brocade industry was very developed and occupied a leading position in the country. At that time, the colorful brocade woven by the warp in Chengdu was gorgeous in color and novel in pattern, and the weaving technology had reached a mature stage, which was called "Shu Brocade" and was famous all over the world. In addition, new varieties such as brocade have appeared. In the Northern and Southern Dynasties, weft jacquard appeared in silk fabrics, which made great progress compared with warp jacquard and could weave more patterns and wider fabrics than warp jacquard.

Weft brocade was very popular in the Tang Dynasty, which developed a new warp and weft weaving technology, creating favorable conditions for the further improvement of weaving and dyeing technology in China. The varieties of silk weaving in the Tang Dynasty are extremely rich, among which brocade, red carpet and brocade are the most prosperous. In the Tang dynasty, flowers and birds were the main decorative themes of brocade, such as lotus patterns, birds meeting grass, scattered small clusters of flowers, painting groups of flowers and so on. Due to the influence of Buddhism, novel and rich patterns of precious flowers and lotus flowers are also widely popular.

There are two kinds of the most famous tapestries in the Song Dynasty, one is Sichuan brocade, and the other is Jiangsu, Hunan and Hangzhou Song brocade. Both are excellent products. Jin Song adopts precise and meticulous "three twill ground", and the warp is divided into two parts: face warp and bottom warp. Raw silk is used for the surface warp, colored cooked silk is used for the bottom warp, and multi-colored refined silk is used for the weft. The bottom warp is used as the ground weave, and the surface warp is used as the "knot warp" of weft length. This structure inherits the weft-brocade weaving technology since the Tang Dynasty, and strengthens the warp with colored weft to form a triple weft. Jin Song's knitting technology fully embodies China's national style and is rigorous and standardized.

4. The prosperity of jade articles

During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the quantity and quality of jade declined sharply, which was obviously the direct result of the war and economic depression in this period.

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the economy was unprecedentedly prosperous, and the jade industry, as a handicraft, quickly recovered and reached a new peak. With the strengthening of contact with western countries, jade materials exported to the western regions surged, which directly stimulated the production of jade articles. At this time, the jade is of high quality, such as sheep fat, and its skills are exquisite. There are feathers, flying, cups, yellow, bracelets, ribbons and mourning books. In the Tang Dynasty, a large number of flowers, birds, figures and animals appeared in jade designs, and flowers, sunflowers, birds and figures were very popular. Life is full of flavor, and the ability of realism is greatly improved, which can be described as both form and spirit. These are obviously related to the maturity of painting and sculpture at that time. In the Tang Dynasty, a kind of jade belt board indicating the level of official position and some new ornaments began to appear, and the number of jade containers with practical value increased. The gold-buckled white jade lamp and gold-inlaid white jade bracelet unearthed from Li's tomb in Sui Dynasty are all beautifully made, and the gold and jade set each other off, which is even more elegant and rich. It can be described as a masterpiece of jade in Sui and Tang Dynasties.

The rise of epigraphy in the early Northern Song Dynasty greatly promoted the collection and textual research of ancient jade. With the popularity of literati flower-and-bird paintings, the decorative theme of jade has become another feature of jade.

Jade lion 5. lacquer

① Wu Dong lacquerware.

During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the lacquer industry declined sharply. On the one hand, it was directly related to the long-term war and social unrest at that time, on the other hand, it was also impacted by the rise of porcelain industry. During the period of 1984, a batch of Wu Dong lacquerware was unearthed in Maanshan City, Anhui Province, one of which was painted in the same color and its surface treatment was quite elegant. The other is a cone-carved black lacquer box cover, where figures and rare birds and animals are added with dense moire patterns; There is also a black, red and yellow rhinoceros ear cup. A number of exquisite lacquer paintings reflecting social customs and historical stories have also been unearthed in this tomb, such as Yan Le's Picture Plate of Gong Wei, Ji Zha's Picture Plate of Hanging Sword, and Boy's Picture Plate of Sticks. Exquisite patterns, strong life, and extraordinary sketching techniques have enhanced the application of oil painting. These precious lacquerware make up for the lack of lacquerware technology development at this stage.

During the more than 300 years from the Western Jin Dynasty to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, with the popularity of Buddhism, there appeared the techniques of making Buddha statues with clips and Tommy painting with lead oxide mixed with oil.

(2) The prosperity of lacquerware in Tang Dynasty.

The main varieties of lacquerware were basically available in the Tang Dynasty, especially the practical lacquerware was very developed. The most striking achievement is the appearance of Qi Diao, which marks a new era of lacquer ware development in China. The knife lacquer carver appeared for the first time, and the lacquer layer also broke through the decorative function. The traditional scope of painting, painting and embedding began to enter the field of relief art, and soon formed an independent category and prospered. In addition, paint piling, gold and silver leveling and mother-of-pearl. It can reflect the craft level of lacquer decoration in Tang Dynasty.

Paint piling is to pile up with thick paint to form a raised pattern. This technique began in the Western Han Dynasty and developed into a style in the Tang Dynasty. Jin Yinping is the most luxurious, rich and popular technique in Tang Dynasty lacquerware. The exquisite carving patterns in the Tang Dynasty became the most representative handicrafts at that time. In addition, the development and prosperity of pinto and metal products are interdependent. Pinto was still popular in the Five Dynasties and declined rapidly after the Song Dynasty.

Mother of pearl was very popular in the Tang Dynasty. It is also flat, but the raw material used is to cut out the image of the shell, carve lines on it, and then embed the pattern on the paint surface. Mother-of-pearl bronze mirrors were popular in the Tang Dynasty, such as the mother-of-pearl bronze mirror unearthed in Luoyang, which used shells to collage figures, ladies, rare animals and rocks and trees. The whole composition is peaceful and peaceful, which is the prosperous Tang Dynasty.

(3) Lacquerware of Song Dynasty with abrupt style change.

The style of lacquerware changed suddenly in Song Dynasty, and monochrome lacquerware became popular. Black is the most expensive color, followed by purple and vermilion. Monochrome paint, that is, the whole body only uses one color, which is simple and unprinted, so it is also called "unprinted lacquer ware". Because there is no pattern, it is often won by shape. The shape of monochrome paint in Song Dynasty is similar to that of porcelain. The tire bone of monochrome paint adopts the ring overlapping method, which is a process developed on the basis of thin plate bending tire. It is an important innovation in the history of lacquerware development and has the advantage of not being easily deformed.

Mother-of-pearl is one of the important varieties of lacquerware in Song Dynasty. Mother of pearl can be divided into two categories: thick and thin. From the early Song Dynasty to the Western Zhou Dynasty, the Five Dynasties were all thick mother-of-pearl, and the black lacquer sutra of Ruiguang Temple in Suzhou in the Song Dynasty was the masterpiece of thick mother-of-pearl in the early Song Dynasty. Pinctada gracilis began in the Northern Song Dynasty, and its level is very high. The Song Dynasty inherited the tradition of the previous generation of painting, such as the external letter of Wen Jingxin of the Northern Song Dynasty in Huiguang Pagoda, Ruian, Zhejiang Province, which piled up Buddha statues, animals, flowers and birds with lacquer dust and embedded with small pearls. The pigment outside the pattern is a pattern of flying, flowers and birds painted in gold.

There are only two authentic objects carved with lacquer in the Song Dynasty, namely "Drunk Pavilion to Eliminate Black Disks" and "Baby Play to Eliminate Black Disks", both of which are hidden in Japan. Lacquerware for removing rhinoceros was also found in tombs of the Southern Song Dynasty. Regularly paint the fetal bones with lacquerware of two or three colors in turn, and then carve them with a knife when they accumulate to a certain thickness. At this time, layers of different colors will appear in the leaf part, achieving a wonderful effect.

6. Gold and silver wares

(1) The prosperity of gold and silver.

The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the production of gold and silver wares in China, especially in the manufacture of utensils. The establishment of the "Gold and Silver Workshop" in the Tang Dynasty brought together skilled craftsmen from all over the country to learn from each other and learn from each other's strengths. In the Tang Dynasty, there were frequent exchanges between China and foreign countries, and the gold and silver wares in Central Asia and West Asia with a long tradition also had an impact on the manufacture of gold and silver wares in China. Therefore, the manufacturing technology of gold and silver wares in the Tang Dynasty developed rapidly.

In the Tang Dynasty, hammering nickel technology was widely used in gold and silver wares, and some technologies, such as cutting, riveting, big welding, small welding, twice welding and wire clamping welding, also appeared. There are many kinds of gold and silver wares in the Tang Dynasty, mainly including bowls, plates, dishes, cups, pots, boxes, plates, stoves and so on. A large number of objects adopt streamline and arc modeling methods, which are generous and lively. In the Tang dynasty, the patterns of gold and silver vessels were complicated, and many of them were full of splendor.

There are words engraved on the gold and silver vessels in the Tang Dynasty, which can be divided into three periods: early, middle and late. Early utensils were mainly bowls, plates, cups and boxes, mostly polygonal, arc-shaped and thick-walled. The patterns in the pattern are mainly singing and dancing and hunting, the plants are mainly honeysuckle and grapes, and the animals are mainly flying lions, Tianma, unicorns and rhinoceroses. In the middle period, generally speaking, the artifacts have not changed much, and there are many deer, geese, bees and butterflies and black ribbons on the patterns. In the later period, the variety of utensils increased, and many gold-plated silver plates were tall and full, trumpet-shaped, and flowerpots were popular. The pattern is mainly broken flowers, and some units are arranged locally, leaving more gaps. It is popular to carve small flowers with thin lines as side decorations. The gold and silver wares in the early Tang Dynasty embodied the styles of Central Asia and West Asia, and completed the process of China in the middle period and further developed in the later period. In the early stage, the manufacturing center of gold and silver ware was in the north, and in the later stage, the technology in the south developed rapidly, showing a different style from that in the north.

② Gorgeous and exquisite Song Dynasty gold and silver wares

In the Song Dynasty, the manufacturing technology of gold and silver wares was developed, and the production and use were not limited to the royal family and nobles. The heart-shaped gold ornaments in a batch of gold and silver utensils unearthed from the tomb of the Northern Song Dynasty at Mufu Mountain in Nanjing are extremely exquisite. It consists of two oval gold nuggets, which are hollowed out, chiseled and twisted to make the vessel exquisite. The silver plate unearthed in Xiaopingqiao, Liyang, Jiangsu, has a high relief effect by hammering Guo Rui patterns in it. The wall of another gold-plated silver lamp with nipple pattern is a sandwich, and the outer wall is decorated with nipples, similar to bronze ware.

In addition to decorations and daily necessities, there were many gold and silver utensils in the Song Dynasty, such as silver towers, relic bottles, Buddha statues and Buddhist temple supplies.

Most of the gold and silver vessels in Liao Dynasty are imitations of Tang Dynasty, but there are also some vessels with national characteristics, such as silver cockscomb pots and gold and silver masks. The gold and silver ornaments in Liao Dynasty were very developed. The silver belt unearthed from Liao Tomb in Chaoyang, Liaoning Province is composed of tens of thousands of square pieces of silver, and each piece of silver is covered with branches, forming a high-relief children's game map. Exquisite silver harness has also been unearthed from Liao tomb in Chifeng. The craft of gold and silver wares in the northwest Xia Dynasty was closely related to that in the Song Dynasty, but the utensils were made roughly.

7. Decorative embroidery was mature in the Song Dynasty.

In Song Dynasty, the printing and dyeing techniques were mainly wax valerian, clip valerian and twisted valerian, and multicolor dyeing valerian appeared. Later, valerian paste and medicinal patch were created, and the printing and dyeing process reached a higher level. Embroidery technology has also made great progress. Embroidered Buddhist scriptures appeared in the Tang Dynasty, and the embroidery skills in the Song Dynasty were more superb.

Embroidery in Song Dynasty can be divided into two categories: one is imitation embroidery painting and calligraphy for viewing; One is practical embroidery, which is used for clothes decoration. As a decorative embroidery, the former has matured, and its content has also developed from embroidery and decorative painting in the Tang Dynasty to imitating famous calligraphy and painting. Its style pays attention to realism, and its ability lies in imitating the lines of pen and ink, the shade of color and the charm of style.

Embroidery technology uses embroidery thread and silk texture to express objects. In addition to pictures, embroiderers are more aesthetic. For example, the embroidery "Crossing the Crane in Yaotai" handed down from the Song Dynasty uses various stitches to express different contents: clothes and rocks are made of shovels and needles, bamboo leaves are made of Qi Zhen, streamers and cranes are wrapped with needles, clouds and houses are covered with gold and nails, floors are made of needles, and color embroidery is used to express the level of scenery. The ground was dyed light brown and the sky was dyed blue-gray. This flexible technique was not available before the Song Dynasty. The application of these embroidery techniques aims at enhancing the artistic effect.

8. Glassware is highly developed

During the Song, Liao and Jin Dynasties, China's glass firing was quite developed. The extensive use of glassware brought a lot of convenience to people's lives at that time, and also brought a unique decorative effect.

During this period, the glass burning industry was developed. First, the burning area was widely distributed. Second, there were many kinds of glassware, mainly including glass bottles, glass gourd bottles, glass grapes and glass petal cups.

The glass manufacturing industry in this period was not influenced by Arab technology, and most of the glass made was high lead glass, mainly made of lead, nitrate and gypsum. For example, the glass gourd unearthed in Taki, Dingxian County contains 70.04% lead. This kind of glass is characterized by "bright color and light brittleness", so it is often used for decoration and display.