What is Chinese studies?

Introduction: Let me introduce you to what Chinese studies are. Thank you for reading.

I. Basic concepts

With regard to the definition of Chinese studies, apart from the basic definition, there is no unified and clear definition in the academic circles.

Generally speaking, Sinology, also known as Sinology or China Studies, refers to the traditional culture and scholarship of China. Chinese studies include China's ancient philosophy, history, religion, literature, customs, textual research, ethics, traditional Chinese medicine, agriculture, martial arts, geography, politics, economy, painting and calligraphy, music, architecture and many other aspects. The concept of "Sinology" came into being in the 1920s, when the trend of "Western learning spread to the East" was in full swing. Zhang Zhidong, Wei Yuan and others put forward the concept of "middle school" (Chinese studies) in order to oppose western learning, and advocated that "middle school should be the body and western learning should be used". On the one hand, they studied western civilization, and at the same time, they resumed the study of Confucian classics in the Han Dynasty. [ 1]

Sinology is based on the pre-Qin classics and the theories of various schools of thought, and covers a unique and complete cultural and academic system, such as Confucian Classics in Han Dynasty, Metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties, Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties, Parallel Prose in Six Dynasties, Poetry in Tang and Song Dynasties, Yuanqu, Novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties and Historiography in Past Dynasties. Hundred schools of thought's theory in pre-Qin Dynasty was * * * *, and there was no master-slave relationship. According to the role played in different periods, each theory played an explicit or implicit role in each period, only in different fields; Since Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty "ousted a hundred schools of thought, Confucianism has always occupied the mainstream position in the field of ideological education, but other theories have also played an important role in different fields, such as Taoism and Legalism in the political field, military strategists in the military field, physicians in the medical field, and other fields (famous artists, Mohists, farmers, etc.). ), etc. Does not mean that a certain field plays a mainstream role. Therefore, there is no division between the schools of Chinese studies, and no school is the main body.

Second, the origin and evolution

The concept of "Sinology" has existed in the history of China, including Zhou Li, Hanshu, Houhanshu and Jin Shu. There was one in the Tang Dynasty. It can be seen that there is a Bailudong Academy under Lushan Mountain, which was built by Zhu Shoujian in the Southern Song Dynasty and became one of the "four major academies" at that time. But before Zhu, this place was not called Bailudong Academy, but called "Bailudong Chinese Studies". What does Bailudong Chinese Studies mean? This is a school. It can be seen that in the history of China, the concept of "Sinology" exists, and the word "Sinology" also exists, but the so-called "Sinology" always refers to the meaning of "Sinology". At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Zhongdu Guo Zi School was established, and later changed to imperial academy, which was in charge of the order of Chinese students. [3] imperial academy has etiquette, music, law, archery, imperial examination, calligraphy, mathematics and other teaching subjects. In modern times, the so-called "Sinology" was considered by some scholars to have originated in Japan. In the middle of the Edo period, some people in the Japanese ideological circle, such as Tian Chunren of the Netherlands, advocated studying Japanese ancient books to understand the local culture, so they were called "Sinology". After the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government carried out the Europeanization policy, which led to the complete westernization of society. 1888, Miyake Serrei, Shiga Chonggang and others set up a society in which politics and religion are integrated, advocating the quintessence of Chinese culture in order to reverse the bias. Perhaps influenced by this trend of thought, in the autumn of 1902, Liang Qichao and Huang Zunxian discussed setting up China Magazine in Japan. 1904, Deng Shi published On the Preservation of Chinese Studies, and discussed the importance of preserving Chinese Studies. 1905, Deng Shi, Huang Jie and others established the sinology preservation society in Shanghai, and published the Journal of sinology preservation society with the aim of "studying sinology and preserving the quintessence of Chinese culture". In addition to,, there are Zhang,,, Huang Kan, Ma Xulun and so on. They are either members of the China League. From April to June, 1922, Zhang gave lectures on "Introduction to Chinese Studies" and "School of Chinese Studies". 1934, Zhang founded the Zhang Guoxue Research Society in Suzhou, and gave a summary explanation of Chinese studies. Zhang's remarks were recorded and sorted out, and books such as On the Balance of National Heritage, An Introduction to Chinese Studies and Zhang Taiyan's Lectures on Chinese Studies were published, which had a great influence in the 1920s and 1930s. Zhang divided the so-called Chinese studies into five parts: primary school, Confucian classics, history, philosophers and literature, from which we can see his definition of the scope of Chinese studies. In addition, Hu Shi, Gu Jiegang, Qian Mu and others also have various expositions on "national studies", "national quintessence" and "national quintessence". [5]

Since the spread of western learning to the east, in order to distinguish western learning from middle school, the concept of "China's traditional ideological and cultural studies" has appeared.

Third, the interpretation of meaning.

What is Chinese studies? There are different interpretations of the meaning of this word, and there is no unified understanding in society. Some scholars believe that Chinese studies, whether ancient or modern, all cultural studies in China belong to Chinese studies; Some scholars also believe that Chinese studies are specially designed for governing the country and politics, and Chinese studies specifically refer to the study of "governing the country and politics". But in any case, two things are certain:

1. What is the basic definition of Chinese studies? The present significance of Sinology is relative to that of Western Learning after the introduction of Western Learning to the East, so Sinology is indisputably "China's inherent cultural knowledge".

2. The scope of Chinese studies is broad and complex, and is it not subject to the master? Sinology is based on hundred schools of thought in the pre-Qin period. In the pre-Qin period, a hundred schools of thought contended and a hundred flowers blossomed. For example, judging from the role played by each period, the Hundred Schools of Thought played an important role in all corresponding fields in each period, so the Hundred Schools of Thought did not split into two.

Nowadays, Sinology refers to all kinds of cultural studies based on pre-Qin classics and hundred schools of thought, covering later generations. Therefore, in a broad sense, China's ancient and modern culture and scholarship include China's ancient history, thought, philosophy, geography, politics, economy, painting and calligraphy, music, Yi-ology, martial arts, medicine, astrology, architecture and so on. They are all involved in Chinese studies. The name of "Sinology" began in the late Qing Dynasty. At that time, European and American academics entered China under the names of "New Learning" and "Western Learning". In contrast, people call China's inherent knowledge "old learning", "middle school" or "national studies". Sinology can also refer to China's ancient theory. Among them, the pre-Qin philosophers are the representatives, and their thoughts and theories have far-reaching influence on the traditional culture of China. They formed the thoughts of military strategists, legalists, Mohists, Confucianists and Taoists. These thoughts discuss how to govern the country from different aspects. It had a far-reaching influence on the rulers of past dynasties, and gradually formed China's traditional cultural concept.

Fourth, the nature of Chinese studies.

1. Sinology ≠ Confucianism

In recent years, more and more people talk about Chinese studies. It seems that if you don't speak Chinese studies, you can't be called China people.

Imperial academy Confucius Sacrificial Ceremony

Imperial academy Confucius Sacrificial Ceremony

But in recent years, people who talk about Chinese studies are talking about Confucianism (Confucianism for short), thinking that there is no Chinese studies except Confucianism; Or only Confucianism is the real Chinese studies.

Shuo Wen Jie Zi: "Confucianism, softness, also known as warlock. From people, you need sound. " Xu Hao pointed out: "Soft people are called Confucianism because they consider themselves scholars." Confucianism "is a common name. Confucian appellation is not Confucius' own appellation, but the name of Confucius' mohists. "Therefore, in ancient times," Confucians "were usually called scholars, such as Dictionary of the World:" Confucians were called scholars. "Calling Confucianism" Confucianism "is just an ancient usage, such as" History of Han, Art and Literature ":"Confucianism is out of the official position of Stuart, helping people to be enlightened by Yin and Yang. Wandering around the Six Classics, paying attention to benevolence and righteousness, ancestors described Yao and Shun, ancestors described Zhang Wenwu, and master Zhong Ni emphasized his words. "

In other words, Confucianism is an ancient enlightenment theory that serves the imperial rule, not a theory that serves the people from the standpoint of the people. Therefore, if Confucianism is used to represent China's traditional culture, in fact, China's traditional culture is completely synonymous with ancient absolutism or the thought of serving ancient absolutism. Of course, it is not a total denial of Confucian culture, but that if China's traditional culture is regarded as Confucian culture entirely or mainly, it will not only completely deny the fine tradition of China's traditional culture, but also deny the positive factors in Confucian culture. This is obviously not in line with the true colors of China's traditional culture, nor is it the main purpose of promoting China's traditional culture at present.

Sinology, as its name implies, is to study the country and the people of China. The concept of state in ancient China is constantly changing, but no matter how it changes, it can be called China or Huaxia. In other words, Sinology should be the general name of academic culture in China or China. Historically, sinology cannot be confined to the study of Confucianism. In the pre-Qin period, a hundred schools of thought contended, and Confucianism was just one of the doctrines juxtaposed with Taoism, Mohism and Legalism. [6]

2. A hundred schools of thought contend

Theoretically, the meaning of Chinese studies can be discussed. This will undoubtedly help us to increase our consciousness in the education of Chinese studies and let us have a deeper understanding of Chinese studies, instead of naively thinking that shopping in robes and jackets is talking about Chinese studies. Mr. Cao Juren pointed out that it would be "very dangerous" if he "doesn't understand what Chinese studies are at all and doesn't expect to study the truth of Chinese studies, but just blindly follows the trend, advocates some Chinese studies at random and acts as a false saint". The predecessors, such as Zhang Taiyan, are called the last generation of China's classical masterpieces, which undoubtedly has rich reference significance for Chinese studies.

Judging from the development of Zhang Taiyan's own thoughts, taking "Chinese studies" as the content is of course the ideological theme throughout his life. From the moment he entered the Qiao Jing Club in Yu Yue as a student to the moment he died, he insisted on "no need to eat or study". However, as a concept, "Sinology" does not always gain legitimacy in his discourse system. Earlier, Zhang Taiyan, as the leader of the quintessence school, used "quintessence of Chinese culture" to refer to the content represented by later "national studies". But he soon changed the concept to "national heritage" and wrote "On the Balance of National Heritage". In the third stage, the concept of "Chinese studies" was put forward. In his later years, Zhang Taiyan will also use "national character" to refer to Chinese studies. Obviously, as far as the use of these four concepts is concerned, Zhang Taiyan's view of "Chinese studies" can be reflected to some extent: "quintessence of Chinese culture" undoubtedly shows a high respect for traditional culture. However, it is difficult to answer "Is everything in history necessarily good?" Such a question. However, the "quintessence of Chinese culture" seems to go to the opposite side slightly, thinking that traditional culture has become a historical relic, which seems to give people a feeling of dust and servants, and is not as antique as the "quintessence of Chinese culture". Of course, "national character" refers to historical and traditional culture. Zhang Taiyan believes that China was persecuted by a strong enemy at that time. Even if it dies, as long as its nationality exists, there will still be a day of revival. Obviously, the meaning of nation is abstract and difficult to grasp. Comparatively speaking, the formulation of "Chinese studies" is not only neutral, but also concrete. In this context, it seems that we can also experience the positive attitude of the country from the practice of "national studies" rather than "national quintessence".

So, what is the main content of Chinese studies? In Zhang Taiyan's words, what are the "schools of Chinese studies"? He mainly discusses it from three angles: Confucian classics, philosophy and literature, which is by no means covered by Confucianism.

Zhang Taiyan pointed out that the study of Confucian classics includes two schools: the study of ancient classics in China and the study of modern classics in China, and each school has its own branch. He himself is a scholar of China's classical works, and he thinks that although the Confucian classics in modern literature are not entirely about religion, they tend to be religious in general. He is somewhat dissatisfied with this. He believes that there is "no history" in terms of the original meaning of the Six Classics. Shangshu and Chunqiu are both ancient books that can be recorded, and they are unquestionable history. Most of The Book of Songs is about state affairs, with only a few ballads, so it is also history. The Book of Rites records the ancient laws and regulations and is a part of history. Chunqiu lists the facts, which contains the meaning of praise and criticism, and is an obvious history. I ching contains the essence of history; Jing Yue has been lost, but Zhang Taiyan speculates that it belongs to music score and system, so it also contains historical features. It can be seen that Zhang Taiyan insisted on the theory that "the six classics are all history", so as Mr. Tang Zhijun pointed out, Zhang Taiyan did not specialize in history among the schools of Chinese studies. Because "the Six Classics are all history", Zhang opposes "over-praising the Six Classics". This attitude is of course closely related to his position on the study of China's ancient classics. However, today, let's look at the "classics" again. Whether it is an unchangeable "common way" or a text that needs to keep pace with the times needs careful consideration. Otherwise, if we are not careful, we may flatter some senior leaders, and we will only obey them.

As for philosophy, Zhang Taiyan thinks that there are four main ancient philosophies in China: Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Mohism. He thinks that the Analects of Confucius is half about ethics and half about philosophy. In Confucianism, Mencius and Xunzi also talked about philosophy; Laozi and Zhuangzi's thoughts are closely related to philosophy; Celebrities involve a lot of "logic", that is, logic; Mozi's Shang Jing and Xia Jing are excellent famous studies. Among the legalists, Han Fei's two books, Jie Lao and Yu Lao, linked him with philosophy. Of course, this is Zhang's description of pre-Qin philosophy. In fact, his exposition of the history of China's ancient philosophy is concise and to the point, which reveals the rich contents of China's research philosophy.

Classification method of verbs (abbreviation of verb)

1. is divided among four banks.

There are two classification methods of Chinese studies: one is the classification method of Sikuquanshu, which divides Chinese studies into four categories: classics, history, sub-studies and collections. "Jing" refers to the classics in ancient books, such as the Book of Changes, the Tao Te Ching, the Book of Songs and the Book of Filial Piety. Later, he added some works on language exegetics, such as Erya; "History" refers to some historical works, including general history, such as Historical Records by Sima Qian, General Records of Zheng Qiao, and dynastic history, such as Han Shu by Ban Gu, History of the Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou, and History of the New Five Dynasties by Ouyang Xiu. Political history, such as Sima Guang's Zi Tong Zhi Jian, and Li Dao's novel Xu Zi Tong Zhi Jian, etc. Specializing in the history of cultural relics system, such as Du You's General Code and Ma Duanlin's General Examination of Literature; Local chronicles with the region as the recording center, etc. "Zi" refers to the collection of figures who founded a theory or school in the history of China. Such as The Analects of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi of Confucianism, Han Feizi and Shang Jun Shu of Legalism, Sun Zi of Military Strategist, Lao Zi and Zhuangzi of Taoism, as well as Buddhism, farmhouse music, doctors, astronomical algorithms, skills, art, spectra, miscellaneous notes and books. Collection is the collective collection and personal collection of scholars in history. Personal collections are called "other collections", such as collections, collections, and collections of kings. Selected Works of Zhaoming, Wenyuan Huaying, Yutai Xinyong, etc. Ancient opera works not included in Four, such as The Palace of Eternal Life, The West Chamber, Peony Pavilion, etc., also belong to this episode.

2. According to the attribute

The other is classified by content, which is divided into three categories at first: the study of righteousness and reason, which clarifies the truth of things, that is, philosophy; Textual research, engaged in historical research, that is, historiography; Social sciences such as literature, literature, history and philosophy are engaged in the creation of practical styles such as poetry, chapter playing and storytelling. Later, someone added two more on this basis to make up for its shortcomings:

First, the study of the world, that is, the political, economic, legal and other social science knowledge of governing the country and the people;

The second is science and technology, that is, natural science knowledge such as acousto-optic electrification.

Sixth, the classics of Chinese studies

1. Jingbu

Classics are divided into Yi, Shu, Poetry, Rite, Spring and Autumn, Filial Piety, Confucian Classics, Four Books, Music, Primary School, Stone Classics and Compilation, mainly Confucian Classics and Confucian Classics Hermeneutics. Important bibliographies include Zhouyi, Shangshu, Zhou Li, Book of Rites, Yili, Book of Songs, Chunqiu Zuozhuan, Chunqiu Gongyang Zhuan, Chunqiu Guliang Zhuan, Analects of Confucius, Xiaojing, Erya and Mencius.

2. History Department

The history department is divided into official history, chronology, chronicle, other history, miscellaneous history, imperial edict, biography, historical records, chronicle, season, geography, official position and so on. Important bibliographies include: Historical Records, History of Han Dynasty, History of the Later Han Dynasty, History of the Three Kingdoms, Spring and Autumn Annals, History as a Mirror, History as a Mirror, Guoyu, Yuejueshu, Wu Yue Chun Qiu, Collection of Letters from the Tang Dynasty and History as a Mirror.

3. Subsector

It is subdivided into Confucianism, Taoism, military strategists, legalists, agriculture, medicine, astronomical algorithms, astrology, art, genealogy, miscellaneous books and series books. Important bibliographies include Laozi, Mozi, Liezi, Zhuangzi, Sunzi, Shanhaijing, Xunzi, Hanfeizi, Guanzi, Yin Wenzi, Shenzi, Gongsun Zilong, Huainanzi and Guanzi.

Assembling department

The anthology is divided into Chuci, Bieji, Zongji, Cifu Qu and Boudoir. Important bibliographies include Songs of the South, Poems of the Tang Dynasty, Poems of Quan Song, Poems of Yuefu, Selected Works, Li Taibai's Collection and Du Gongbu's Collection.

Seven, the essence of Chinese studies

Confucius-Be kind, don't do little good, don't do little evil. To be a man, you should do your duty, wealth should not be lewd, and poverty should not be moved. To tell the truth, honesty is the foundation of being a man. Respect yourself, be strict with yourself, and be lenient with others. Being contented is always happy, and being contented is always happy! This is the way to be a man, and everyone should work hard to do it!

Laozi-big heart, accommodating things in the world; Empty your heart and be a good person on earth; Calm down and talk about things in the world; Sneak into their hearts and observe the principles of the world. "Tao, the Austria of all things." "Everything depends on life, but it is not diligent. It is successful, but it is not the main thing." Modesty is the first rule to protect yourself, tranquility is the first rule to be a man, and tolerance is the first rule to do things; No desire is the first method of nourishing the heart; Don't say things that are not good for body and mind; Don't do things that are bad for your body and mind; Don't enter people who are not good for body and mind; Don't enter the realm that is not beneficial to body and mind; Don't show people books that are bad for your body and mind.

Zhuangzi-peace of mind is not as good as peace of mind; It is better to be broad-minded than broad-minded. Cultivate the body of nature by the way of nature; Cultivate the god of joy with joy. Being awed is the basic moral principle of being a man. The so-called happiness is not more wealth, but less desire. Being a man, character comes first, but can be second; Doing things, understanding first, diligence second. Life should learn peace, happiness and compassion.

Compared with Mencius, the monarch and the minister are strong and weak, and the relationship between them is dominated by the strong monarch. The monarch values ceremony and the minister values loyalty, so the way of monarch and minister lies in ceremony. The monarch is polite to the minister, and the minister will be loyal; I am loyal to the monarch, but he is not polite, and my loyalty will retreat.

Xunzi-summarized as seven aspects: First, degeneration: learning should not be satisfied with existing achievements, but should be constantly invented, constantly improved, and made qualitative changes. The second is emptiness: emptiness refers to learning attitude. Empty, modest and modest. The third is one: "one" is to study wholeheartedly and wholeheartedly, and "the way to learn lies in specialization" The fourth is quietness: "quietness" means to be quiet and abandon all other thoughts. The fifth is accumulation: Xunzi said: "If you don't accumulate steps, you will be thousands of miles away; If you don't accumulate small streams, you won't be a river. Sixth, the teacher: "The country will be rich and strong, it will be expensive and heavy ... The country will decline, not as good as the teacher. "With a good teacher, you can be eager to learn." To be a good teacher, you must learn from Yao, Shun, Yu and Tang. Seventh, friends: Xunzi suggested that scholars should be "friends and relatives" in order to achieve "being good but not satisfied, being remonstrated and remonstrated" in academic research, that is, being constantly criticized and corrected, and achieving success in the future.

Sun Tzu-Wen Tao's Military Strategy. China's military strategic thought has a long history and is profound. It is the treasure of traditional culture and the essence of historical heritage. Military strategy is like a double-edged sword. The light one uses its awn, and it hurts when it moves. It is a weapon; If you are ignorant, it depends on the occasion, which is a sharp weapon. I hope that scholars can take its essence, attach importance to its utilization, carry forward the ancient road and benefit the country and the people. Coaching is not knowledge training, nor skill training, but an expanded belief and vision.

Management-the cultivation of ability and habit; A coach is like a mirror, which reflects the real situation and limitations of the parties, but also allows the other party to see more possibilities and give the other party a chance to choose again. The mission of a coach is to succeed by achieving others!

Han Feizi-Theory of Unified Control: "Honesty is the way, operation is the skill, organization is the device, talent is the foundation, system is the body, and culture is the soul", which takes you to cultivate six aspects of energy and helps you to complete the thrilling leap from attacking the city slightly to strategizing, from successful entrepreneurship to lasting success, and grow into a new leader in the new economic era.

Guiguzi-Machiavelli refers to all flexible means used in the process of fighting for, consolidating and developing power. Power refers to the power to directly dominate others and make them act according to their own will. Power brings wealth, status and glory. Machiavelli is naturally not bound by all benevolence, morality, fairness and justice; It doesn't even have any principles. The only principle is: achieve the goal by hook or by crook. The rationality of Machiavelli's tactics depends on the result of Machiavelli's tactics, that is, the so-called "those who steal hooks will be punished, those who steal countries will be punished", and the same is true of "the winner is the king and the loser is the robber".

University-the process of self-cultivation is essentially a process of self-cultivation, knowledge, honesty and integrity. Wu Ge is the way to explore and understand the development of things; Knowledge is to acquire knowledge, and sincerity is to treat everything with sincerity, sincerity and loyalty; Righteousness is to correct one's psychology and become a person with high morality and profound cultivation. Therefore, the process of self-cultivation is the process of exploring the development law of things, the process of learning knowledge, the process of treating everything sincerely, the process of being strict with yourself, perfecting yourself and turning yourself into a virtuous person.

I ching-the way of heaven and earth: width, thickness, height, clarity, leisure and length. The so-called way of heaven and earth is just the law of nature. If you obey-you will be independent and high-spirited; If you come back-you will never live again. Think of the pain of reincarnation, but not human! Therefore, the Tao is: it is already doomed, and it is difficult to go against God's will. Come to think of it, isn't that it? Therefore, the way of heaven and earth lies in people's hearts.

Zen-observing the festival between life and death, paying attention to morality imperceptibly. Death gives birth to life, life gives birth to death, death is the beginning of another life, and life is the end of another death. Therefore, to live is to live and to die is to die. How can you believe in immortality or not being born? Therefore, when you come, you should stay and stay, follow the fate, don't entangle, and don't phase.

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