How did handicrafts arise and develop in the pre-Qin period?

The handicraft industry appeared with the arrival of the Stone Age. As early as in the Paleolithic Age, there were stone tools, bone tools and clam tools, which was the driest handicraft production. More than 10,000 years ago, the invention of pottery technology marked the qualitative leap of handicrafts, and also marked the arrival of an era, the pottery era. Yangshao culture and Longshan culture in the pottery, type, shape, color decoration has been more complex. Henan Linru Yan village unearthed a colorful pottery tank represents the level of pottery color decoration art in this period. This color pottery tank 47 cm high, caliber 32.7 cm, bottom diameter 19.5 cm; tank body painted with a picture, the left half of the picture for a crane holding a fish, the right half of the picture for a stone axe. This picture is called q fish stone axe picture.

Jade originated from the production of stone tools. Jade is different from stone tools in that it mainly reflects people's aesthetics and values, and is therefore mainly used in social life and interactions. The earliest jade artifacts discovered in archaeological excavations were found at the Hemudu culture site. Since then, there have been many discoveries in archaeological excavations around the world, especially in the Yangtze River Basin and the Great Wall and some parts of the Northeast as much as D, such as from the Taihu Lake Basin, Liangzhu culture sites unearthed in the jade, divided into ceremonial and living with two categories, varieties of cong, ji, battle-axe, kuai, and so on.

The division of labor in the Xia Dynasty handicrafts is more detailed. Copper and jade manufacturing is a representative craft sector in the Xia Dynasty, "Mozi? Plow column" said the summer after the Kai made Gailian folding gold in the mountains and rivers, and pottery casting in the Kunwu. Summer copper production raw materials have been developed from red copper to bronze. Red copper is natural copper, while bronze, is smelted and processed from the ore. Bronze is copper, tin, lead alloy, high hardness, has a wider use in life. However, due to the Xia Dynasty bronze smelting and casting is in the initial stage, so there are not many types of bronze, the current archaeological discovery is mainly used by the aristocrats of the ceremonial vessels, other types of less common. The types of jade artifacts discovered in the Xia Dynasty include jade go, jade knife, jade gui, jade cong, jade plate, jade handle-shaped ware, jade shovel-shaped ware, etc. The manufacturing technology of jade handle-shaped ware is very outstanding, on which animal face patterns and petal patterns are engraved. The beautiful modeling and fine carving represented the highest level of jade craftsmanship at that time.

Xi Zhong made the car legend of the Xia Dynasty, like the Xia Dynasty has mastered the car-making technology. In addition, the summer wine-making technology is also very high, "Shiben" in the Dukang made wine, Taikang made broomcorn millet wine records. Lacquerware manufacturing in the Xia Dynasty also has a considerable level, Erlitou site unearthed coffins, more than with red lacquer brush. Summer sites have also been unearthed in the hemp weaving, indicating that the summer textile industry has arisen and developed.

The handicraft industry of the Shang Dynasty is quite developed, not only the number of products, more types, and high level of craftsmanship. Some of the major crafts sector, this time have been ready, such as bronze, pottery, porcelain, lacquer, jade, textiles, brewing and so on.

The Shang Dynasty bronze is very complete, there are weapons, production tools, living utensils and rituals. The Shang Dynasty has mastered the bronze alloy technology, and reached a fairly high level. Currently found in the Shang dynasty is also China's pre-Qin era of the largest bronze is the Division mother wu tripod, body height of 133 cm, 117 cm long, 78 cm wide, weighing more than 800 kilograms. After metallographic analysis, the Division mother wu tripod is dissolved by copper, tin, lead, three metals into a bronze alloy casting three elements accounted for the proportion, and the "Kao Gong Ji" recorded six points of its gold, and tin in a, called the bell tripod of Qi basic match. Description of the Shang Dynasty bronze casting technology has matured.

Pottery production is also an important handicraft sector in the Shang Dynasty. In addition to the traditional pottery, but also invented a high level of manufacturing technology white pottery. This white pottery hard texture, white color, beautiful appearance, is then more valuable artifacts. Shang dynasty fired primitive porcelain technology has been produced, in today's Henan Zhengzhou, Hubei Huangpi Panlong City, Jiangxi Qingjiang Wucheng, Henan Anyang Yin Ruins, Hebei Gaocheng Taiwan West Village, Henan Huixian Liulige, Shandong Jinan Daxinzhuang, Shandong Yidu, etc., are excavated a large number of Shang dynasty primitive porcelain. The types of vessels include zun, beans, jars, urns and so on.

Shang Dynasty textile handicrafts, lacquer manufacturing industry has further developed, the level of craftsmanship is quite high. In addition, the Shang Dynasty jade, winemaking, construction, etc. also reached a considerable level.

The Western Zhou handicrafts of a wide variety of production technology. The Western Zhou government craftsmen called the hundred workers, which can be seen in the division of labor of the fine. Western Zhou bronze casting process, decorative techniques in the Shang Dynasty on the basis of development, casting process has a block Fan method, sub-casting method; decorative techniques such as inlay. Such as Qishan Hejia Village in 1973 unearthed in the early Western Zhou triangular aid to the early Zhou, aid base fine cloud pattern embedded in two turquoise for the double-eye shape, to the entire aid to the Ge added a lot of beauty.

The car of the Western Zhou period is mainly wooden, reinforced by glue and lacquer leather, with a high level of craftsmanship. Zhou man-made car has a detailed division of labor, according to "Kao Gong Ji" records, only carpentry is divided into a variety of people, there are specializing in wheel wheel people, specializing in the car box of the mikoshi people, specializing in the car regulator people and so on.

In the textile industry, dyeing industry, the Western Zhou has also reached a certain level, in Jingyang Western Zhou tomb was found plain linen, tissue density of 13 warp threads per square centimeter, 12 weft threads. Baoji Rujiazhuang tombs unearthed silk fabric, the Department of twill jacquard fabric, pattern for diamond pattern, with jacquard machine weaving. In addition, in Rujiazhuang tomb also found a fine embroidery marks. From the color analysis of the fabric and embroidery marks, mineral dyes such as cinnabar and stone yellow were used.

During the Spring and Autumn period, the scale of handicrafts in the vassal states expanded rapidly. Shanxi Houma found a large area of bronze, bone, pottery and other crafts workshop sites in Jin. Among them, the pottery workshop sites are concentrated in a range of 0.5 square kilometers. Kiln clusters are dense, some almost connected, visible at the time of large-scale production of pottery.

Textile industry is the Spring and Autumn period to obtain a greater development of one of the handicraft sector, the textile industry in the state of Qi is the most prestigious. Han Shu? Geography," said Qi weaving ice dude Cherry embroidery pure and beautiful things, the number of the world for the crown with clothes and shoes.

The ceramics industry, salt boiling industry, lacquer manufacturing industry in the Chung Homo Autumn period are very developed. Shanxi Houma Niucun ancient city site unearthed early celadon, glaze color light green, glaze uniform luster. The geometric printed pottery of the Wu-Yue region reached its heyday. The salt boiling industry of Qi and Yan had unique development conditions, and its scale and benefits made it one of the pillar industries of the national economy. Changsha Spring and Autumn Tomb unearthed lacquer coffins, lacquered wooden car, lacquered copper scabbard, etc., are very high technology crafts.

During the Warring States period, with the improvement of agricultural productivity, which is the universal adoption of iron tools, greatly promoting the development of handicrafts. Handicrafts business mode of government hand Ding industry and private handicrafts two categories, private handicrafts are divided into family handicrafts and individual handicrafts. The government-run handicraft industry had a long history and a fine division of labor, with specialized officials in charge of management, and its products were mainly for the enjoyment of the upper ruling group. The emergence and rapid development of private large-scale handicrafts is the most important change of the Warring States handicrafts compared with the traditional handicrafts in the mode of operation, which mainly operated iron smelting, salt cooking and other important industries related to national livelihood. In the Warring States, the family handicraft industry is mainly the sericulture, hemp, reeling, spinning, weaving and weaving, knotting, etc. The products are mainly for their own consumption, and only a small number of products are involved in the market exchange. In addition, there are individual handicrafts, although they are small in scale, but the business is very extensive, metallurgy, carpentry, carpentry, ceramics, and so on are not in its business scope. According to the record of Teng Wengong ("盂子") Teng Wengong", the tools of production and some daily necessities used by farmers at that time were basically obtained from individual handicraftsmen through exchanges, i.e., the so-called "Su Yi-Mei-Wu" (粟易械器). On the contrary, individual craftsmen had to exchange their own products for food and other items, so-called corn for their tools. This shows that the individual craftsmen have occupied a very important position in the economic life of the two wars.

During the Warring States period, people have summarized the initial knowledge of the search for minerals. The tube? Ground number" cloud: on the Dan sand. Under the gold; on the magnetite, under the copper and gold; on the lingshi, under the lead, tin and red copper; on the ochre, under the iron, Hubei Tonglushan copper mine site, the mine is up to 50 meters deep, the use of vertical shafts, inclined shafts, inclined alleys combined with the excavation of multi-medium section, the initial solution to the series of complex technical problems such as underground ventilation, drainage, transportation, elevation, lighting and lane support, the use of mining tools is mainly iron . The advanced technical level achieved by the mining industry provides the prerequisites for the rapid development of the metallurgical industry.

Iron smelting at the time of the Warring States, charcoal as raw material, with a leather bag to drum the wind, in order to increase the furnace temperature, in the smelting and casting process, there has been pig iron smelting and casting and gross iron forging technology, able to soften the cattle iron castings. From the "Historical Records? Cargo Shik Lianzhuan" records and the range of unearthed iron, iron smelting and iron manufacturing has been popularized at the time of the various regions of the Great Powers.

In the copper smelting cesspool, about the proportion of copper and tin, has accumulated a wealth of experience, the quality of copper artificially improved. China's bronze casting exquisite, exquisite shape, decorative work beautiful, detailed and complex pattern. In addition, the bronze skeletonization, gold and silver wrong, inlay, gilt and other crafts have also been created and improved. Xunzi? Strong country" in talking about the casting of bronze swords, finishing the situation: criminal Fan is, gold and tin beauty, work metallurgy skill, fire Qi got, cut the penalty and Mo Xie has, however, not stripped, not hardened t can not break the rope. Peeling off the, hardening, then neuter plate pellets, axe cattle and horses _ not a moment's ear. Xunzi's strong broad is the last link of bronze casting - the importance of repair, but by Xunzi's words, we know that bronze casting in the repair before, there are still five links such as criminal model, gold tin, work metallurgy, fire Qi, dissecting and so on, and each link is related to the success or failure of the casting. Here can be seen in the complexity of the bronze casting process and the high requirements. This superb casting technology is since the creation of bronze, generations of skilled craftsmen continue to practice the results.

Lacquer manufacturing to the middle of the Warring States period rapidly developed into an independent handicraft sector. At this time, lacquer has been used not only for mourning, but also for furniture and many other household items, as well as musical instruments, weapons accessories, etc., both anti-corrosion, but also to increase the beauty. Lacquer colors are black, vermilion, yellow, purple and more than a dozen, and can be painted into a variety of beautiful patterns.

The Warring States construction industry with other industries to collaborate and thus reached an unprecedented level. The most representative of the level of the Warring States construction industry is m court building. Qin Xianyang first palace site, the Department of multi-storey high platform building, the main hall has a hall and many rooms, the walls of the dark columns in the reinforcement, under the pedestal corridor and drainage facilities. The building materials used: the foundation is hard stone, support is wooden columns, wooden frame; bricks have blue-gray hard bricks and hollow bricks, which have a variety of decorations. The tiles are greenish gray slate, barrel tile and tiles. In addition, some metal devices were also used. In the architectural art, there have been decorated ridges, arches, etc. ①. This palace site shows that the Warring States construction industry has reached a high level.

In addition, weapons, vehicles, pottery, textiles, salt, leather and other industries in the Warring States period also had a greater development than in previous generations. Together with other economic sectors, these handicrafts sectors *** together promoted the development and prosperity of the social economy of the Warring States.