Overview of the Development of Ancient Chinese Newspapers

The development of ancient Chinese newspapers is an indispensable stage in the history of Chinese newspaper development. Therefore, an overview of the development of ancient Chinese newspapers is particularly important.

To overview the development of ancient Chinese newspapers, we must first know what ancient Chinese newspapers are and what their characteristics are. Ancient Chinese newspaper refers to a proven medium used to disseminate news in the Tang Dynasty, and its characteristics include the following three aspects: content, form, and distribution and delivery are different from those of modern newspapers.

The development of the ancient Chinese newspaper began in the Tang Dynasty with the "newspaper" and "newspaper" to the Qing Dynasty newspaper. Including more than 1,200 years, including both the Song Dynasty newspaper is quite developed, there are still doubts about the Yuan Dynasty newspaper, the Ming and Qing Dynasties newspapers have their own characteristics, but are more inclined to serve the rulers

(a) China's earliest newspaper - the official newspaper of the Tang Dynasty, the ancient Chinese newspaper began in the Tang Dynasty. The first to come out was the official newspaper issued by the government of the Tang Dynasty (the content was the palace dynamics, and the readers were the officials of the capital). The "Kaiyuan Miscellaneous Newspaper", published during the Kaiyuan reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, is the earliest known official newspaper. Tang Sun Qiao wrote "read Kaiyuan miscellaneous newspaper" article, is the earliest record of this ancient official newspaper. The British Library in London, England, the collection of "Dunhuang Dibao" (content is to inform the return to the Yi army envoys to the court to ask for the runes of the plot), issued in the Tang Xizong Guangqi three years (887 AD), was found in 1900 in the Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, is China's oldest surviving newspaper, but also the world's oldest surviving newspaper.

(2) The Song Dynasty's "di bao" and "tabloid"

Feudal official newspaper in the Song Dynasty had a greater development, then known as "di bao", The "di bao" is one of the most popular name. The distribution organization of the "dibao" was the Zunzhengyuan, which was stationed in the capital city of each region. The content of the "residence newspaper" is mainly the emperor's edicts and orders, the emperor's life, speech and behavior, the feudal government's decrees, gazettes, news about the appointment and dismissal of officials, rewards and punishments, and ministers of the chapters of the newspaper (major military intelligence). The press release of the "Di Pao" was tightly controlled by the ruling faction of the feudal government. Song dynasty censorship: the "fixed" system. (Censorship. 999 AD. In order to control the release of news, the Academy of Progressive Scholarships had to send the compiled samples to the Privy Council for scrutiny, and the approved samples were called "finalized copies".) Most of the "di bao" in the Song Dynasty were hand-copied, and a small portion of them may have been printed on engraved boards.

The tabloid began in the late Northern Song Dynasty and became popular in the Southern Song Dynasty, when readers covertly referred to it as "news," an unofficial newspaper. The content of the "tabloid" to the "residence newspaper" does not contain the ministers and officials of the appointment and dismissal of news-based, but also published a number of requests to defend against the invasion of the Jin soldiers of the argument. The publishers of the "tabloid" were some of the officials, the middle and lower level officials of the central department and the owners of the bookstores. Its publication was banned by the government of the time.

(3) Official Newspapers of the Ming and Qing Dynasties and Newspapers Published by Private Newspaper Houses

The official newspapers of the Ming Dynasty were circulated by the Chief Secretary, and those of the Qing Dynasty were circulated by the Chief Secretary and the Titanic Officers, and the contents of the official newspapers were often under the control of the emperors and the ministers in power. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, a number of modernized government newspapers were established through the Official Book Bureau and other units, the main ones of which were the Official Book Bureau Newspaper and the Political Official Newspaper, etc. After the middle of the 16th century, the Ming government allowed private citizens to set up their own newspaper offices, and to select a part of the manuscripts of the diwans, which were copied from the Cabinet departments, to be publicly offered for sale under the supervision of the feudal government; most of the newspaper offices of this kind were located in Beijing. They issued newspapers, commonly known as the "Beijing News" (sometimes also referred to as "di bao".). Newspaper room in the capital, and from the capital to the outside world. The content consists of the emperor's decree, court affairs, and the official's folding three parts). Newspaper room published "Beijing newspaper" has a newspaper header. Chongzhen eleven years (AD 1638) later, the general use of movable type printing (the end of the Ming Dynasty, the residence of the newspaper movable type printing is China's news dissemination technology is a major step forward). Publication and delivery of the Beijing newspaper, from the middle of the Ming Dynasty, became an open profession. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the "Beijing News" used to carry social news. However, under the tight control of the government, most of the "Beijing newspapers" in the Qing Dynasty could only publish documents and news that were allowed to be released by the government. After the Qing Dynasty's entry into China, there used to be more than ten newspaper houses in Beijing, and the newspapers they produced were still called "Beijing News". The content was similar to that of the "Beijing News" in the late Ming Dynasty. (Late Qing Dynasty "Beijing News" and nearly the newspaper has a similar place)

Based on the materials we already have, we were on the Tang Dynasty, the Song Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty and the early and mid-Qing Dynasty newspaper of a few points can be summarized as follows:

A few points on the understanding of the newspaper in the Tang Dynasty

(a) the Tang Dynasty is the beginning of the news business of the dynasty in China. Early Chinese newspapers were first published in the Tang Dynasty. The common words for journalism, such as "news" (①) and "editor" (②), which are very close to the modern meaning of the word, also began in the Tang Dynasty.

(2) appeared in the Tang Dynasty is the earliest newspaper, is the local provinces and towns in the imperial court sent to the local officials to disseminate a newspaper.

(3) the current affairs of the Road by the Dizi officials to the local newspaper, the beginning of the time, about no later than the Tang Xuanzong Kaiyuan early years, that is, the beginning of the eighth century AD.

(4) the Tang dynasty already have the conditions of printing newspapers, Dezong, Wenzong before and after, many of the book of the Constitution and calendars, etc., have been widely used in engraved printing.

(5) the Tang dynasty newspaper, is a kind of official documents from the travel out of the original state of the newspaper.

(6) the Tang dynasty newspaper, as a kind of news media, from the beginning for the feudal ruling class control, is the latter to coordinate the feudal central and local relations, to maintain the ruling order of the feudal dynasty is an important tool.

A few points about the Song dynasty newspaper

(a) the Song dynasty is China's feudal society, the further development of journalism era. The distribution system of the feudal official newspaper was further improved in the Song Dynasty.

(2) in the early Song Dynasty, the report of the Academy, by the states and counties themselves to appoint the capital of the report of the official respectively to the local transmission, its nature and the system of distribution of the report and the Tang Dynasty is the same.

(3) the name of the di newspaper began to be seen in the Song dynasty public and private literature, became the most popular name for the feudal official newspaper.

(d) tabloid began in the Northern Song Dynasty, popular in the Southern Song Dynasty, is the earliest privately run newspaper in Chinese history.

A few points about the Ming dynasty newspapers

(a) China's feudal society, the news business to the Ming dynasty developed to a new stage, the distribution system of the feudal official newspaper more perfect. The private newspapers originated from the tabloids of the Song Dynasty were allowed to be published in public, and the running of newspapers became an open profession in the society, and the newspapers printed with movable type appeared.

(2) The copying and distribution of official newspapers in the Ming Dynasty went through three stages: the General Department, the Six Departments, and the Tidang.

(3) after the middle of the Ming dynasty Ming newspaper room was allowed to operate openly, the community began to appear to "send the di newspaper as a business" and to run the newspaper to gain every penny of the "newspaper room Jiale".

(4) the Ming dynasty dibao readers, mainly for the dynasty and field of intellectuals.

(5) the Ming dynasty feudal rulers mainly through the restriction of copying and transmission of this link to implement the control of the di bao.

(6) The uprising peasants in the Ming Dynasty used the means of news dissemination, such as posters, banners and cards, to transmit information and fight against the enemy. These means of news dissemination to a certain extent played a role similar to that of newspapers.

A few points about the Ming dynasty newspaper

(a) China's feudal society's press to the Qing dynasty developed to the final stage, finished its last course. Feudal official newspaper distribution system tends to be finalized.

(2) The distribution of official newspapers in the Qing Dynasty was the same as that in the Ming Dynasty, which passed through the General Department, the Six Sections, and the Titang.

(3) Tidang played a very important role in the Qing dynasty news business.

(4) The private press in the Qing Dynasty was mainly concentrated in Beijing.

(5) In addition to Beijing, there was also a certain development of journalism in the local provincial capitals in the Qing Dynasty.

(6) the Qing court on the Tidang and folk newspaper room newspaper activities are strictly controlled: prohibit the transmission of non-wholesale zhangzhang, prohibit prying to write the recording of news other than copying, prohibit inaccurate reports, prohibit the forgery of the title and the imperial approval. The purpose is to prevent the leakage of court secrets and maintain the feudal system. The tight control made the newspapers run by all kinds of newspaper offices become more and more rigid and lack of vitality, and gradually tended to decline in the fierce competition with the modernized new newspapers.

Summary of the above, it is necessary to make a historical evaluation of the ancient Chinese newspapers:

China is an ancient civilization with a long history. China's ancestors have made outstanding contributions to the development of the world's material and spiritual civilization, and paper-making and printing, which are closely related to modern journalism, were first invented in China. The Chinese were the first to provide the material conditions for the development of world journalism, especially the press.

The earliest newspaper in the history of world journalism also came from China. The earliest newspapers written on paper and the earliest newspapers printed on paper were both born in China. The Kaiyuan Miscellaneous Newspaper (开元雜報), which appeared in the Kaiyuan reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty (713-742 A.D.), was not only the earliest newspaper in the history of Chinese journalism, but also the earliest in the history of the world's journalism. The printed newspaper that appeared in the late Northern Song Dynasty (11th and 12th centuries) is not only the earliest printed newspaper in the history of Chinese journalism, but also the earliest printed newspaper in the history of world journalism. The long history and richness of Chinese journalism is unmatched by any Western country.

Ancient Chinese newspapers were born in the feudal period of China and were the reflection of the feudal natural economy dominated by the feudal landowning class and its political representatives through the means of journalism. During the long period of feudal society, the ancient Chinese newspapers, whether they were the official dibao, or the privately-run tabloids and Beijing newspapers, were bound to maintain a certain degree of contact with the feudal rulers of the time, and were subject to their constraints. While the official dibao was the mouthpiece of the feudal ruling class and the imperial propaganda tool, the privately-run tabloids and Beijing newspapers could only operate under the control of the feudal ruling class and could not go beyond the limits. The feudal rulers would never allow newspapers that could freely report all news and express all opinions to exist. Newspapers in ancient China did play a role in providing readers with political and social information, but they were never free from the control of the ruling class. The history of newspapers in ancient China is basically a history of the feudal ruling class mastering the media, controlling the means of public opinion and restricting the freedom of speech and publication.

Ancient Chinese newspapers had a history of about 1,200 years. The tabloid press has a history of nearly 1,000 years. The dibao and jingbao, published by the private press, had a history of nearly 400 years. From their birth to the end of the period, they are not short, but the development is not fast, the form and content of the change is not big. In terms of the amount of information and the effectiveness of the news, it was difficult to compare with the new newspapers imported from the West in recent times. The reason for the slow development of these newspapers was certainly due to the feudal monarchical system and the cultural policy of each dynasty to restrict the publication of newspapers, but the most fundamental reason was the constraints of the feudal natural economy. The small country life of the widowed people, the natural economy of dispersed operation and self-sufficiency, the closed interpersonal relationship and social psychological state of the Qin people who regarded the fat of the Yue people are all unfavorable to the development of the news business. In such a soil, it was difficult to produce a newspaper with a high demand for the quantity and effectiveness of information and a high degree of commercialization. In the late Republic of China and the early Qing Dynasty, under the influence of the budding capitalist economy, there was once an opportunity for this kind of newspaper, but it was soon stifled by the current feudal rulers in the face of the increasingly intensified stage and national contradictions.

Ancient newspapers did not develop quickly and changed little until the outbreak of the opium wars, China's feudal natural economy was forced to disintegrate, the feudal government's closed-door policy was forced to cancel, the commodity economy has been a substantial development of a change. At that time, however, the old-fashioned Di Di and Jing Di newspapers had been completely ossified from form to content, and could not adapt to the requirements of the change. Just as man is a monkey, but today's monkeys can no longer be turned into men, they were no longer able to achieve this historical change, and they could only be gradually replaced by new modernized newspapers. This is the end of the ancient Chinese newspaper.

① See Yao Fushen: "Tang Dynasty Sun Dixuan's Use of the Term "News"", published in the February 1989 issue of Journalism University.

② The term "editing" was first used in the early Tang Dynasty in Li Yanshou's Nan Shi (The History of the Southern Dynasties): "I have old books at home, and I edit them by hand."

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Discussing the development of China's private newspapers before 1956

I. The basic situation of the distribution and operation of private newspapers

Early 20th century to the 1920s, the rapid development of national capital, the newspaper industry appeared a number of national newspaper capitalists and newspaper business management experts, the main several private newspapers gradually beyond the preliminary stage of management and management of the initial stage, to the stage of capitalism, entrepreneurial business management. The managers of private newspapers have been expanding their business, increasing revenue and generating profits by introducing advanced printing equipment and technology, strengthening advertising and distribution business, carrying out internal shareholding reform, and perfecting the newspaper management system and other measures. The business of private newspapers, especially distribution, reached its peak around the 1930s, with a circulation of tens of thousands or even more than 100,000 copies.

After accepting The Declaration in 1912, Shi Liangcai devoted himself to improving printing equipment and reducing operating costs. After he became the sole proprietor of the newspaper, he introduced advanced foreign technology, strengthened infrastructure, improved editorial operations, and increased the number of local editions and publications other than newspapers, which significantly increased the newspaper's popularity and business performance, as well as its circulation. Prior to the reception of Shi, the circulation of the Declaration did not exceed 7,000 copies, rose to 20,000 copies in 1917, more than 30,000 copies in 1920, and in 1935 hit a record of 150,000 copies.

In 1926, by Wu Dingchang, Hu Zhengzhi, Zhang Jiluan three people cooperated to take over the Tianjin "Ta Kung Pao", creating the most charismatic new record in the history of the Chinese newspaper "Ta Kung Pao" era, Hu Zhengzhi served as the general manager and deputy editor-in-chief. He attached great importance to the management work, that: "the newspaper life based on the original building on the two aspects of advertising and distribution." At that time, the newspaper had only 70 employees and a circulation of only 2,000 copies. The new Ta Kung Pao took measures to improve its financial system and printing technology, and its advertisement and circulation grew rapidly, reaching a maximum of 12,000 copies in 1927 and a total of over 50,000 copies in 1931, and the number of employees increased to 700 when the Shanghai edition was established in 1936, which was 10 times of the original one, with a monthly expenditure of 100,000 yuan, and a distribution network of over 1,300 offices nationwide, with a circulation of over 100,000 copies. With a circulation of over 100,000 copies, it became a major newspaper with national influence.

Additionally, other private newspapers have made great improvements in their distribution operations. For example, the New People's Newspaper, which was founded in Nanjing in 1929, was influenced by warlords and bureaucratic capital, but under the painstaking management of Chen Mingde and Deng Jixing, its circulation reached 16,000 in 1936, and its advertising revenue accounted for more than 50 percent of its total turnover. Later, through the vigorous development of evening magazines and local editions, the highest circulation had reached 100,000 copies.

Because of the immaturity of China's national capital, private newspapers could not really realize their economic independence, but had to face the market and pay attention to their business. On the whole, most of these private newspapers drew on capitalist enterprise management methods and achieved great success in business operations such as advertising and distribution. However, due to the imperialist invasion of China, the expansion of foreign capital and the expansion of bureaucratic capital, the development of national capital industry was seriously affected, and the glorious period of private newspapers did not last long.