Study of pre-Qin thought

Executive Summary: A hundred schools of thought of the pre-Qin philosophers are in contention, with a variety of schools of thought. The author of the book "A Brief History of Chinese Philosophy" in the pre-Qin part of the comb, trying to sort out the Confucianism, Mohism, Taoism, the famous, yin and yang, Legalism and other six schools of thought and the evolution of the main ideas, in order to deepen the understanding of the pre-Qin schools of thought.

"A Brief History of Chinese Philosophy" can be really bad reading ah, barely finished reading, is now. The first time I read the book, I was able to get a good sense of what I was doing, and I was able to get a good sense of what I was doing. Passing the homework must be submitted, because not to leave a "bad record", I had been kicked out of the network division once, this kind of thing can never happen again, because the network division is the last light of my heart. At some point in the future, when I become enlightened, I will be able to have a chance to start over again, and the webmaster is my bottom line, and I think I'm not far from enlightenment.

Back to the main topic. Read the book, although there are obscure and unclear, but also a lot of enlightenment. For the "pre-Qin thought", special combing as follows, if there is something wrong, please bear with me.

I. Deep in the years, waiting for the blossoming of the season - the source of pre-Qin thought

(a) the background of Chinese philosophy

1, the geography of the Chinese nation - the breeding ground of thought

China is a continental country. China is a continental country. In the eyes of the Chinese forefathers, the place where they lived was the world. This is crucial to the development of Chinese philosophical thought. Because of this, the universal sentiment of Chinese philosophy has developed as much as it has; because of this, Chinese philosophy is so inclusive; because of this, Chinese thought lacks aggressiveness. As the saying goes, one side of the water and soil to raise a person, this side of the water and soil is the root of the breeding of Chinese thought.

2, the economic background of the Chinese people - the generation of ideas

China is a continental country, the Chinese people have always relied on agriculture to survive. So the land is the sinews that are precipitated in the thought of each family. In the agricultural society, "farming and reading" as a kind of pride has been maintained until modern times. Although readers are not directly engaged in agricultural production, of course, there are also a considerable number of readers engaged in agricultural production, but readers and rural agriculture have a constant connection. So the worldview and cosmology of the readers often reflect the thinking of the farmers.

(2) The Origin of the Zusi

The period from the seventh to the third centuries B.C.E. - the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period - was a time of great socio-political change in China. During this period, rites and music collapsed, and not only did the political power of the Zhou family disintegrate, but more importantly, the entire social system disintegrated. In the course of this great disintegration, official representatives of various kinds of knowledge were scattered among the people. These people might be nobles themselves, or they might be officials who served the kings and lords with their skills and gained hereditary official positions. In this way, the former noble officials, after being dispersed among the people, opened schools and recruited students to make a living based on their specialized knowledge or skills. These private teachers, who imparted knowledge and expressed opinions, became "shi" (teachers). This is the beginning of the separation of "teacher" and "official".

In Chinese, "家" means first of all family or household, which suggests a personal or private matter. Until there were teachers who lectured and expressed their personal opinions in a private capacity, there could be no talk of thinkers.

Since each of these teachers had their own specialties, and each of them was giving expression to his own ideas, some of them were good at teaching scriptures, rituals, and music, and they were called "Confucians" or "Scholars"; and some of them were good at the art of war and martial arts, and they were called "Chivalrous Men". There were also teachers who were skilled in military arts or martial arts, and they were called "warriors"; there were also teachers who were good at debating, and they were called "debaters"; and there were others who were good at witchcraft, astrology, divination, and numerology, and their knowledge was known as "Fangjiao (square arts)", and these people were called "Fangjiao (square arts)". These people were called "Fangshi"; there were also some people who, with their practical knowledge of politics and the strategy of spreading out the world, were known as the advisors or officials of the lords and princes, and they were called "Shi of Magic"; finally, there were also some people who, with their academic talents and disappointment with the reality of politics at that time, disappeared into the mountains and forests, and they were called "Shi of Magic"; and there were also some people who, being disappointed with the real politics of that time, went into hiding. Lastly, there were those who were disillusioned with the realities of politics at the time, and who went into hiding in the mountains and forests, and were called "hermits".

These six types of people, the formation of Confucianism, Mohism, Taoism, Nostradamus, Yin-Yang, Legalism and other six schools, are described below.

1, Confucianism flow, cover out of the scribes.

Peasants live off the land, and the land can not be moved. The landlord class origin of the scholar also can not leave the land. If a person does not have special talents, he can not leave the land where his ancestors live, and his children and grandchildren can only live in this land for generations. This means that the descendants of the same family had to live together for economic reasons, thus developing the Chinese family system, which is rare in the world in its complexity and organization. Confucianism is to a large extent the rationalization of this family system.

For the peasants, paying attention to the movements of the sun and moon and the changing of the seasons was a necessity for agricultural production, and from this, the ancestors were inspired to the theory that, in both the realm of nature and of life, when anything goes to an extreme, there is a tendency to move in the opposite direction to the other extreme. This theory provides the main argument for the Middle Way, which is advocated by both Confucianism and Taoism.

2, the stream of Mohists, covered out of the nomadic.

In the Zhou Dynasty, emperors and princes had their own military experts, and in the late Zhou Dynasty, when the ruling power was dissolved, these military men lost their power and titles, and were scattered all over the country, just looking for someone to hire them, so that they could make a living, and they were known as "chivalrous men" or "rogues". They were called "chivalry" or "rogues". They were called "chivalrous" or "rogues", and their warrior ethic was "to be true to one's word, true to one's actions, true to one's promises, and not to love one's own body, but to go to the doom of the men". A large part of Mohism is an extension of this warrior ethic.

In Chinese history, both the Confucian and the warrior were specialists attached to the nobility, and they themselves belonged to the upper class of society. Later on, Confucian students continued to come from the upper or middle class, while chivalry came more from the lower class. In ancient times, all kinds of canons and rituals were exclusive to the nobility, and in the eyes of the common people, they were all extravagant red tape without the slightest use. It was from this point of view that Mozi and the Mohists criticized the traditional system and Confucius and Confucianism, which had embellished it. It is this criticism and the defense of chivalrous morality that is the mainstay of the philosophy of the Mozi family.

3, Taoism is a stream of people who come out of the hermit.

The peasants lived a simple life and thought purely. From this point of view, Taoism condemned civilization and advocated a return to simplicity; idealized the innocence of children and despised knowledge.

Peasants are always dealing with nature, and they adore it. Taoism brings this adoration to its fullest extent, and at the same time makes a strict distinction between what belongs to nature and what belongs to man: one is natural, the other is man-made. Nature is pleasurable, man-made gives pain. Taoism this idea finally developed to advocate the "unity of man and heaven", that is, man and nature, and the universe.

4, the stream of famous, cover out of the defense.

The pre-Qin Dynasty called the "famous" for the "defender", "defender" from the litigation experts, Deng analyze is one of the earliest characters.

5, the stream of yin and yang family, cover out of the Fangshi.

The pre-Qin yin and yang family originated from the ancient art of the square, the line of the square that is the magician. In the early years of the Zhou Dynasty, the heyday of feudalism, each nobleman has hereditary magicians. Every nobleman had a hereditary magician, and the nobles would ask for divination before taking any important action. With the gradual decline of the feudal system, the magicians of these noble families gradually lost their status and dispersed in the society, but they continued to make a living by their magic arts. This is the origin of "Fangshi".

The arts or spells originally came from superstition, but they were often the germ of ancient science. Both magic and science tried to explain natural phenomena in a positive manner, so that man could conquer nature and make it useful to him.

6, the stream of legalists, cover out of the magic.

The collapse of the Western Zhou feudal social system brought far-reaching social and political changes. The new situation brought new problems, the same for all countries. Faced with such a situation, thinkers of all schools of thought from Confucius onwards sought to solve the king's various problems. The solutions they suggested were often impractical, and the kings loved to listen not to advice on how to seek the well-being of the people, but to the brilliant ideas that could cope with the problems at hand.

There are also a few strategists who understand realpolitik, and the kings are usually willing to listen to what they have to say. They advised the kings and princes on how to rule over vast fiefdoms and how to centralize power in their own hands. They advocated that the king did not need to be a saint or a superhuman, but that by practicing the strategies they proposed, a person with only the qualifications of a middle-aged man would be able to run the country in an orderly manner. There were also some scholars of the arts who provided the theoretical basis for the strategies they advocated, and this constituted the ideology of the Legalists.

Second, listen to the sound of flowers blooming - colorful schools

(I) Confucianism

1, Confucius: the first teacher

Confucius, who came from a poor family, served in the government of the state of Lu, and by the age of fifty had risen to a high position. Due to the political chaos, he was forced to leave his post and run away. For thirteen years, he traveled around the world, hoping for a chance to realize his ideals of political and social reform, but he met with obstacles everywhere; in his later years, he returned to his hometown of Lu, and died three years later, in 479 BC.

(1) the right name

On society, he believed that, in order for a society to be able to go on track and orderly, the first thing is "the right name". That is to say, the objective existence of various things should be consistent with the original meaning of their names. The ruler, the minister, the father and the son have their own responsibilities and duties in society, and anyone who has a name should fulfill his or her responsibilities and duties. This is the significance of Confucius' advocacy of "correcting the name".

(2) Benevolence and Righteousness

Confucius emphasized benevolence and righteousness, especially benevolence, with regard to personal virtues. Righteousness is what is appropriate, i.e., what a thing should be. It is an absolute moral law. Every member of society must do certain things, which are ends in themselves, not means to an end. As for "benevolence", its essence is "loving others".

(3) Loyalty and Forgiveness

To do one's best for others is called loyalty, and not to do unto others what one would not have them do to one's own desires is called forgiveness. According to Confucius, the way of loyalty and forgiveness is the way to put benevolence into practice, which is what Confucius called "the way of benevolence".

(4) Knowing one's destiny

Confucianism developed the idea of "to be, but not to seek" from "righteousness". This means that to recognize the inevitability of the world's existence is to "know one's destiny". This means that if we do what we are supposed to do and fulfill our duty, that duty is morally fulfilled, and it is not a matter of whether or not it succeeds or fails in terms of outward appearance.

(5) Confucius realized the value of transcendental morality and felt that he had borne a divine calling.

2 , the idealistic school of Confucianism: Mencius

Mencius, was born in the Warring States period in the state of Zou, in present-day southeastern Shandong. He learned the theory of Confucianism from the students of Confucius' grandson, Zisi. In Confucianism, Mencius represented the idealistic school of it.

(1) The Goodness of Nature

While Confucius emphasized "benevolence", he did not adequately elaborate on why people should do so. Mencius attempted to answer this question, and in doing so, he developed the "Goodness of Human Nature". In arguing for the goodness of human nature, Mencius was not arguing that a person is born to be a Confucian saint. He recognized that there are elements of human nature that are neither good nor evil in themselves, but if they are not moderated, they will lead to evil. This, according to Mencius, is what makes man **** the same as the beast; they reflect the fact that there is an instinctive aspect of the beast within man. But strictly speaking, this is not "human nature".

Human nature, there are benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom "four ends", if fully developed, they will grow into the "four virtues" emphasized by Confucius. If they are fully developed, they will grow into the "four virtues" emphasized by Confucius. These virtues, if they are not hindered by external forces, will grow naturally within the human heart.

(2) Political Philosophy

In Confucian political philosophy, only a sage can be a true monarch. Mencius went further and portrayed this ideal as a fact that had existed in ancient times.

If the ruler of the country lacked the moral qualities of a leader, according to Mencius, the people had a moral right to revolution. In this case, if the ruler is killed, it is only killing an unrighteous person, and is not considered "regicide".

If a sage becomes the ruler of a country, his rule is called the "Way of the King". According to Mencius and later Confucians, there are two kinds of political rule: the "Way of the King" and the "Way of the Hegemon". According to Mencius, the most important and sound economic basis for the realization of the Way of the King is the equal distribution of land among the peasants.

While Confucius confined his explanation of his principle to the sphere of personal moral cultivation, Mencius extended it to the sphere of politics and the governance of the state. Confucius explained his principle only in terms of "inner sainthood", whereas Mencius extended it to "outer kingship".

(3) Mysticism

Mencius and his school among the Confucians believed that the universe was fundamentally a moral universe. The moral principles of human beings are also the metaphysical principles prevailing in the universe, and human nature is the evidence of these principles.

The fusion of man and the universe, the realization of Mencius's statement that "all things are in me," gives us a glimpse of the mystical element in Mencius's philosophy.

Haoqi is the relationship between man and the universe, and as such, it is a value that transcends morality. It is the spirit in which man and the universe are one, and therefore Mencius said that it is "stuffed between heaven and earth".

3, the Confucian school of realism: Xunzi

Xunzi, whose real name was Fong, also known as Xunqing, was a native of Zhao. Xunzi was probably the last great thinker of the Jixi school.

(1) The Status of Man

Xunzi is famous for advocating "human nature is evil". Xunzi's theory can be called a cultural philosophy. The main thrust of his theory is that all good and valuable things are created by human beings. Value comes from culture, and culture is the creative achievement of man; therefore, in the universe, man is as important as heaven and earth.

(2) Doctrine of Human Nature

In the chapter of Sexual Evil, Xunzi tries to prove that man is born with the desire for profit and sensual enjoyment; but he is also born with the intellect, which makes him capable of becoming good.

(3) The Roots of Morality

Confucianism, in general, emphasized rituals and ceremonies, and Xunzi emphasized them even more. Xunzi emphasized the normative role of rituals from the point of view that rituals are the norms of social behavior.

(4) The Doctrine of Rites and Music

Xunzi's discussion on the role of rites in culture and upbringing emphasizes the fact that rites purify human feelings and make them pure and elegant.

Xunzi uses music as a tool for moral education, which is the general Confucian view of music.

(5) Theories on Logic

Xunzi's theories on the proper name are not only focused on ethics, as Confucius and Mencius did, but also reflect a concern for logic. On the logical function of name, Xunzi says in the chapter of "The Righteous Name" that all things have their own names, and different realities have different names. Regarding the logical categorization of names, Xunzi divided them into two types: *** names and aliases. The *** name is the product of a person's comprehensive thinking, while the alias is the product of a person's analytical thinking. The relationship between "name" and "reality" is conventional.

Xunzi's thinking reflected the turbulent times in which he lived. At that time, people longed for political unity and an end to the turmoil. This unification was called "unification of the world", which actually meant the unification of China.

4, the metaphysics of Confucianism

"Yi Chuan" and "Zhongyong" represent the final stage of the development of pre-Qin Confucian metaphysics.

(1) the "reason" of things

"Yi Chuan" in the Tao is "many", is the individual governing each type of things in the universe, "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason", "reason".

The Tao in Yi Chuan is the "many", the individual that governs each type of thing in the universe, and in this respect, it is a bit like the "****phase" in Western philosophy.

(2) the generation of all things "Road"

In addition to the different things "Road", there is a general "Road" that governs the generation of all things. In the first part of the book, it is said that "one yin and one yang is called the Way. The one who succeeds it is also good, and the one who becomes it is also nature." This is the "Tao" that generates everything.

(3) The "Tao" of change

"Yi Chuan" emphasizes that everything in the universe is in a constant state of change. First, everything that happens in the universe, including nature and life, constitutes a continuous chain of natural sequences. Secondly, in this evolutionary process, everything is in a movement towards self-denial. Third, in such an evolutionary process, things are never ending.

"Yi Chuan" and "Laozi" hold the same view: if you want to do something, do not expect smooth sailing, horse to success; if you want not to lose what is already there, we must think a little more from the opposite side of things.

Another point on which Yi Chuan and Laozi share the same view is that modesty and being humble are important virtues.

(4) "Middle" and "Harmony"

The true meaning of "middle" is "just right", "just right", "just right", "just right" and "just right". The real meaning of "in" is "appropriate" and "just right". "Harmony" means to harmonize differences and reach a harmonious agreement. Harmony comes from the center, and the center leads to harmony.

(5) "Mediocrity" and "Commonness"

The "Mediocrity" suggests the importance of seemingly "ordinary" and "common" things. "The importance of seemingly "ordinary" and "commonplace" things. The word "yong" means "ordinary" and "common". The role of spiritual culture is to enable people to understand that they are actually following the "Tao", so that people know the meaning of their lives, which is very different from living in ignorance.

(6) From enlightenment to the highest good - Ming and sincerity

In the Meanwhile, the highest good is called "sincerity", which is connected with "Ming". The meaning of "Ming" in Zhongyong is that "when a man is in harmony with heaven and earth, he is perfect".

(2) Mohism

1, Mozi: the first opponent of Confucius

Mozi, surnamed Mo Zhai. The main source for the study of Mozi's thought is the book Mozi.

(1) Concurrent love

"Concurrent love" is the central idea of Mozi's philosophy, which is a natural extension of the professional ethics of the ranger from whom Mozi came, and advocates that all people in the world should love each other, regardless of their rank.

(2) Tian Zhi (天志) and Ming Ghost (明鬼)

There is God in the world, and God loves the world. God and the myriad spirits under Him reward those who practice mutual love and punish those who practice alienation.

(3) The Origin of the State

2. Late Mohism

(1) Discussions on Knowledge and Names

The Mojing categorizes knowledge logically. In terms of different sources, knowledge is divided into three categories: knowledge from direct personal experience, knowledge from authority, and knowledge from inference. In terms of the different objects of knowledge, it is divided into four categories: knowledge of "name", knowledge of "reality", knowledge of "correspondence", and knowledge of action.

(2) Discussion on "Discernment"

The purpose, role, and method of "defense" are discussed in the chapter of "Small Takes". Its method is roughly equivalent to the deductive and inductive methods of Western logic.

(3) Clarification of the Sermon on Concurrent Love

The later Mohists inherited the tradition of Mozi's utilitarianism, and advocated that all human activities are aimed at avoiding harm.

As for the nature of profit, Mozi did not raise this question, while the later Mohists raised and answered it. , proposing a hedonistic explanation.

Regarding Mozi's doctrine of concurrent love, the late Mohists believed that its most distinctive feature was "concurrent", that is, broadly inclusive.

(C) Taoism

1, the first stage of Taoism: Yang Zhu

Yang Zhu's birth and death dates are not known, but it is generally known that he lived between the years of Mozi and Mencius.

Yang Zhu had two basic ideas: one was "everyone for himself", and the other was "lightness and rebirth". This is the opposite of Mozi's idea of "love for all".

2. The second stage of Taoism: Laozi

Legend has it that Laozi was surnamed Li, Dan.

(1) Dao, nameless

Dao, as the origin of all things, cannot be named, so it is impossible to express it in words. But we want to express it, so we have to describe it in words. Calling it "Tao", "Tao" is not a name, "the name of the nameless".

(2) The invariable law of nature

Everything is in flux, but the law that determines the flux of everything is invariable. Therefore, the word "constant" in Laozi is both "constant" and "constant".

In the law that governs the change of things, the most fundamental one is a Chinese saying: "What goes around comes around". These four words originated from the thoughts of Laozi, but not Laozi's original words.

(3) To conduct oneself in the world

Not to be self-righteous, not to cut oneself down, this is the first point emphasized by Laozi. Not to seek perfection, this is the second point emphasized by Laozi.

The Taoist concept of "doing nothing" does not mean that one should not do anything at all. It means that one should not try to win by doing more than one thing, and that one should seek simplicity and abandon one's intellect.

(4) Political Theory

The sages ruled the country, not to be busy doing things, but to abolish and abolish the things that should not have been done in the past, so as to "do nothing", "do nothing but do nothing".

3, the third stage of Taoism: Zhuangzi

Zhuang Zhou, commonly known as Zhuangzi, is probably the greatest thinker in the early Taoist.

(1) The way to relative happiness

The free development of human nature can bring relative happiness, but to achieve the "supreme happiness", there must be a higher understanding of the nature of things.

(2) Political and Social Philosophy

Opposed to the use of governmental institutions to rule, and believed that the best way to govern was to do nothing. The rationale for this is different from Lao Tzu's focus on "the opposite is the movement of the Tao", but emphasizes the difference between the natural and the man-made, and that the more a ruler relies on man-made means to rule, the more misery and misfortune he will experience.

(3) Emotion and Reason

Emotion can be resolved through reason and understanding. The sage sees things as they are, and therefore does not let his heart swell with all the changes in the world. His life is independent of the outside world, and therefore his spiritual happiness is not influenced by the outside world. He can be said to have attained "supreme bliss".

(4) The way to attain the ultimate happiness

The goal of human endeavor is "unity of heaven and man". In order to achieve this, one needs to have a higher level of understanding of things and unity with the Way. The happiness that one gets from this is the "supreme happiness".

(5) Limited viewpoint

Zhuangzi believes that people's concept of right and wrong is based on their limited viewpoints, for the same thing, there can be a variety of different views, both sides of the argument are limited, are one-sided.

(6) Higher Viewpoint

Transcending any limited viewpoints, comparing the instincts of things, that is to say, according to the Tao, "Heaven and earth are born together with me, and all things are one with me".

(7) A higher level of knowledge

"Knowledge of not knowing"

Chuang Tzu solves the problem initially posed by the early Taoists, that is, how to be fully alive and how to avoid disaster? The true sage is independent of the transformation, and the universe as one, his happiness is absolute happiness, that problem can no longer become a problem.

(8) Mystical Methodology

The way of sainthood requires the renunciation of knowledge, and as a result of renunciation of knowledge, there is no knowledge, but "knowledge without knowledge" and "ignorance" are two different things. They used the word "forget" to summarize their method and experience of spiritual cultivation.

(4) Famous Scholars

1, Deng Qie

Deng Qie was only a pioneer in analyzing the problem of "name" and "reality", and made little contribution to philosophy.

2. Huishi's theory of the relativity of things

It is impossible to decide which is the largest and which is the smallest among the real things through real experience. But if we get out of the scope of experience, we can say: what is not outside is "the greatest", and what is not inside is "the smallest". By defining "the greatest" and "the smallest" in this way, their definitions are said to be absolute and unchangeable. By analyzing the "Great One" and the "Small One," Huishi arrived at the concept of the absolute and unchangeable. From these two concepts, he realized that the "qualities" and "distinctions" in real things are relative and subject to change.

3. Gong Sun Long's Doctrine of ****phase

Huishi emphasized that things in reality are relative and changeable, while Gong Sun Long emphasized that "name" is absolute and unchanging. Gong Sun Long reveals the ****-phase beyond images and attributes. He discusses that the ****-phase cannot be called an object of experience.

(V) Yin-Yang School

1 , The Five Elements as described in the Hong Fan

The Five Elements are five dynamic, interacting forces, including: water, fire, wood, gold, and earth.

2. The Book of the Moon

The book of the Moon is named after the fact that it told the king and the public what to do and what not to do in each month in order to be in harmony with all things in heaven and earth. In the book, the universe is structured by the concept of yin and yang.

3 , Zou Yan

Zou Yan developed a new philosophy of history, using the transfer of the five virtues to solve the history, which is both changing and regular.

4. The principle of yin and yang as described in "Yi Chuan"

All phenomena in the universe are produced by the interaction of two principles, yin and yang, and two forces.

In Yi Chuan, in addition to the concept of yin and yang, another important concept is "number", that the mystery of the universe is in the numbers. Later, the Yin-Yang masters tried to use numbers to link the Five Elements with Yin-Yang.

(F) Legalism

1. Han Feizi, the master of Legalism

Han Feizi was the master of Legalism. Before him, there were three schools of thought. One faction led by Shen to, and Mencius contemporary, advocating that in politics and statecraft, "potential", that is, power and might, is the most important. The second school, led by Shen Buhai, emphasized "techniques", i.e., political power tactics. The third school, led by Shang Yang, emphasized "law", i.e., laws and regulations. Han Feizi considered all three essential.

2, the legalist philosophy of history

The legalists y understand that every era of change, there is a reason why it had to change, and therefore can only be realistic about the world.

3. The Way of Governing

In order to adapt to the new political situation, the Legalists suggested new ways of governing the country. According to the Legalists, these are the unbreakable methods of governing the country, starting with the enactment of laws. The king also had to have the power to manage people, so he could find the right people to do the ruler's work.

The Legalist interpretation of the term "proper name" is: "to follow the name and be accountable for the truth", which means that an official holding a certain position has the responsibility to fulfill the tasks required by his position.

According to the Legalists, it is not necessary to select the best people to govern the country, but the king only needs to keep the power of reward and punishment in his own hands, so that he can "do nothing without doing anything".

Three, ten thousand purples and reds is always spring - conclusion

The pre-Qin ended, an era of the end, but a variety of schools of thought continue to be nurtured in the years, forward, waiting for the next blossom.

This is the end of this assignment.

Tuesday, February 19, 2013