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Cavalry and infantry tactics in medieval Europe

Author: comeback

The form of wars in medieval Europe inevitably depends on the times and regions, but generally speaking, before the Hundred Years' War, the scale of wars was very small, and most of them were "small-scale conflicts" between lords. Even during the Crusades, European knights still didn't like array attacks. So except for the first Crusade, which just took advantage of the civil strife in the Muslim Empire, all other Crusades failed. However, the personal combat effectiveness of European heavy armor knights is extremely high, which is more than enough to deal with peasant riots. It was not until the rise of professional mercenaries who knew collective action that they began to decline, and muskets were the last push. In France, one of the qualification examinations for knights is to fight wild boar with bare hands without any armor. If he can kill the wild boar, he can pass.

Heavily armored cavalry's heavy armor is extremely protective. Before the invention of muskets, few knights died in large numbers on the battlefield (except for the Hundred Years' War, but most heavily armored knights were not killed by the power of English longbows, but were cut by daggers). However, heavy armor is also a burden for knights. Although knights can climb walls, poles and somersaults in heavy armor (the qualification examination of French knights includes wearing heavy armor and climbing over city walls), once a knight loses his horse, the walking distance will not be too long, especially in the mud, which is even more difficult, and the result is in vain. This was the case during the Arcane War, which later proved to be one of the reasons for the fiasco of the French army.

However, it is wrong to think that the high temperature will make the heavy armor knight faint. They have to get used to this environment since they were young. There are thick and impenetrable robes under the armor, which makes the clothes cool because of the evaporation of sweat (of course, it is not as cool as air conditioning). This is the method that the Crusaders learned from the Arabs.

Another weakness of a knight is his war horse. If there were no horses, they would fight on foot, and they would be exhausted just by walking in heavy armor. And horses must be strong enough, otherwise they can't bear the heavy armor and the weight of the knight (so the knight must keep a short and pithy appearance as much as possible, even the famous Henry V is only 170mm tall), so the knight often takes great care of his horse, and the price of a good horse can usually hire dozens to one hundred long archers. Therefore, in the Hundred Years' War, as long as the infantry inserted sharpened stakes, the knights would often turn around to avoid hurting the horses. In addition, no matter what kind of horse it is, people can't persuade it to sacrifice for nationalism, so as long as the infantry line up in a hollow square with the guns consistent with each other, they can prevent the war horse from colliding with them from any angle.

However, the noise and visual effects caused by the collective charge of heavily armored knights will shock the infantry facing them, especially the lower the training level, the easier it is to collapse because of cavalry phobia. And the knights often run to the front of the infantry array in twos and threes, and leave quickly after throwing the javelin. It was in the hasty battle that Britain lost the fighting spirit of the infantry because of this tactic used by William's cavalry, and finally collapsed automatically. However, except for the early Norman knights, European knights did not have the habit of carrying bows and arrows or javelins with them, and were not even interested in developing this tactic. The only exception is probably that in the Hundred Years' War, Henry V tried to let longbow soldiers ride horses, but the result was not very satisfactory, because longbow was difficult to use on horseback and it was also difficult to gallop. At that time, longbowmen were only mercenaries, and they were equipped with everything, so horses were usually ridden by rich longbowmen instead of walking. These people cherish their riding skills more than knights.

In the later period, the knight's heavy armor has reached the point where even the iron arm crossbow can't penetrate (not counting muskets). Although there are still many fragile gaps in this heavy armor that can be penetrated by bows and arrows, those places are not the key to the human body. Therefore, the only effective weapon for infantry to deal with heavily armored knights with personal strength, except daggers, is "Albert". The Chinese translation of Ji is a mistake, because Ji is a combination of hook and spear, while Ji is a combination of axe, hook, spear and can opener. Users can gather together and use it as a spear, or they can fight alone with infantry or cavalry. Usually infantry use halberds to unhook cavalry, and then use axes or parts that look like can openers to get rid of unlucky knights. When the Swiss became independent, duke of burgundy, an Austrian ally, died under the halberd. Since then, Swiss mercenaries have become famous in Europe for their bravery and good use of halberds.

If knights are very "personalized" warriors, then medieval infantry are very collective? It was the end of the Middle Ages, and it was very personal before. Therefore, the battlefield is often a series of one-on-one fights, rather than cooperation between arms. It was not until the Hundred Years' War that Britain "retro" this tactic. It is precisely because of this that mercenaries in the Middle Ages were not disciplined and mostly malnourished, not to mention lacking discipline and organization, so they were no match for knights in personal combat effectiveness. However, when they knew how to act collectively and coordinate their actions, the knights found that they could no longer despise these former Wu Xia Meng. However, the use of this tactic led to the loss of the fighting spirit of the infantry, and the final result was automatic collapse.

Even so, the infantry is often passive in fighting against the cavalry, and it is difficult to protect themselves during the March, not to mention the most vulnerable moment of defense is when the defensive formation is arranged. Because cavalry has motive power, the time and route of combat have more flexible space than infantry.

In addition, the European infantry fighting mode in the Middle Ages can refer to Braveheart. However, when mercenaries appeared, because of the dual main problems of cost performance and operational objectives, most European infantry gave up using shields and used spears in large numbers. They use halberds with more money, because their main opponents are "knights with heavy armor", and their spears may not be lost to the knife and axe men with shields in melee.

Another special weapon is a two-handed sword. The real two-handed sword is actually not heavy, at least not as exaggerated as Arnold used in the movie. Its blade is only sharp at the front end, and it will not cut the skin even if it is held by hand in other places. So it can be used to chop people, stab or even stab them, hook the opponent's weapon with a sword ring, or hit the opponent's face or body with a handle.

Knight's sword is another kind, shorter but very sharp, which can be used to cut others on horseback or poke holes in their armor while flying. Knights use spears, which look like a big pencil. They are more used to scare people than to kill people. Even if knights fight, they rarely kill people. The only example that reminds me is that a French king accidentally hit the eye hole on the mask to protect his face with the tip of a spear and died.

The cavalry first appeared around 1000 BC, and since then, the troops on horseback have played several important roles in the battle. They act as scouts, combatants, melee assault troops, rear troops, and pursue retreating enemies. Cavalry can be divided into several different types according to equipment and training, and play different roles according to the situation. Light cavalry has almost no armor, and is most suitable as scouts, combatants and responsible for the rear. Heavy cavalry in armor is best suited to fight the enemy as assault troops. However, all types of cavalry are suitable for pursuit.

Medieval knights were all heavy cavalry. According to the knight code, their role should be to attack and attack enemy cavalry and infantry. The term "armed soldiers" originally refers to armored soldiers who have been fighting on horseback and on foot since the13rd century, and later refers to knights and their entourage, gentry and professional soldiers.

Knights have all the advantages of speed, intimidation, attack power and height in battle. With the development of the Middle Ages, the strengthening of knight equipment further improved these advantages.

weapon

Spears and later big spears are weapons used by cavalry in combat. They are suitable for assassinating enemy troops on foot, especially for those who project weapons. The cavalry's posture of holding a pike to kill the enemy can increase the effect of shocking the enemy, and the impact of the horse in Mercedes-Benz can also be transmitted through the spearhead at the moment of impact, making the killing knight an amazing sharp arrow.

Historians have been arguing about the importance of stirrups in the rise of knights. Stirrup first appeared in Asia and spread to Europe in the eighth century. Some people think that it is very important for the rise of knights, because it allows riders to support themselves and spears, thus transmitting all the power of horses when charging through the spearhead. Although the advantage of this kind of power is indisputable, some people think that before the stirrup appeared in Europe, the high saddle developed in Rome could already let the rider pass on this kind of sprint power. A bardo tapestry depicting William's conquest of England in 1066 shows that when respected Norman knights used spears, they mainly extended their spears for assassination or throwing projection, rather than attacking with spears. At this time, Europeans have known about stirrups for at least two centuries. In the later Middle Ages, the sprint made by knights with spears was only a microcosm of the battle scene, and such a play was usually not the correct tactic.

After the first attack, knights usually lose their spears or spears, or get into melee. Either way, the knights will change into another weapon, probably their swords. The cavalry sword gradually developed into a broad and heavy sabre, and the knight standing in the stirrup can bring great power to swing the sabre at the enemy's head or body. Sword is the most precious weapon of knights, because it can be carried with you to show your identity and personality. They are the most commonly used weapons in hand-to-hand combat between knights. A good sword is expensive, and owning a good sword is another symbol of the aristocratic class.

Other weapons used in combat include hammers and hammer spears (developed from sticks), axes and flails. Priests who fight and monks who serve as soldiers usually have hammers and spears, because they try to follow the biblical warning about bloodshed. These sharp weapons can easily kill bloody enemies.

Under no circumstances will a knight use any kind of projectile weapon. At that time, it was considered shameful for knights to kill enemies from a distance with arrows, crossbows or projectiles. As long as the situation permits, knights will try to fight with people of the same level, fight face to face, and sometimes don't shoot at all.

Helmet and armor

Chain mail was the armor worn by later Romans and some invading Germanic tribes (including Goths). Before people began to use more protective armor in the13rd century, chain mail was always welcomed by European aristocrats in the Middle Ages. However, when people find that chain mail will be pierced by an arrow or the tip of a sword, its importance is not the same as before. Usually when you wear chain mail, you will wear a short jacket called a coat, especially during the Crusades, because chain mail will reflect sunlight.

The helmet is also developed from a simple conical design to a large metal tube, and then designed into a block to avoid the arrow from the front. Later, a helmet that can be bolted to the bulletproof vest was developed.

/kloc-a whole set of armor weighing 60 pounds appeared in the 0/4th century. Well-designed armor keeps the knight amazingly flexible. Even if he falls to the ground, the knight in armor will not be defeated because he can easily get up and fight again. According to the records and descriptions in the literature, people wearing armor can even do lightweight gymnastics such as handstand. Later generations pay more attention to defensive bows and arrows when making complete sets of armor, and reinforce the most vulnerable places. In the late Middle Ages, a whole set of armor made of carved ornaments appeared, which played a greater role in etiquette and ostentation than in actual use.

Armor is a very expensive burden for knights. In addition to their own equipment, their entourage must also be fully armed. An important Lord must provide armor for many knights. In the Middle Ages, making armor was an important business, and the huge market for using armor was also growing. Ordinary soldiers who win the battle can get a lot of armor by stripping the dead knight's body and sell it for profit.

horse

Knights are often particularly proud of the speed and physical strength of their seats. These horses need a lot of training in order to handle them easily in collisions and melee. A well-trained horse can respond to the smallest command, and let the knight hold a shield and a spear. Historians often argue whether a knight needs a heavy horse to carry the weight of a fully armed knight or a pony needs speed and flexibility.

Equestrian is another feature that distinguishes elite knights from civilians. Hunting can make equestrian more skillful, and it is also the favorite leisure activity of nobles. The traditional fox hunting activity continues to this day.

In the conquest of other countries by Mongols, the role of cavalry reached its peak. On the contrary, the infantry on the battlefield in Western Europe began to regain power. From about the middle of 13 century, the heavy cavalry in the Middle Ages went downhill. At that time, three improved infantry weapons made the cavalry lose its advantage. These three weapons are: the improved crossbow with better effect and more power, the longbow developed by Britain and the spear that has become terrible in the hands of the Swiss.

In addition, there are two major technological changes. First, the variety obtained by the Crusaders crossing European horses with Arabian horses gradually degenerated, and second, chain mail was replaced by sheet metal armor. Half-breed thoroughbred horses and chain mail once gave heavy cavalry a high degree of tactical mobility, thus making it an invincible army in the European battlefield in the13rd century. The above two technical changes have made the heavy cavalry lose its original tactical mobility. /kloc-the heavy cavalry in the 0/4th century, because they were wearing metal armor, their horses were also wearing the same heavy armor, holding long swords, shields and long and heavy spears, so they became a group of slow and heavy waste. They can only rush forward assiduously, but they can't speed up, let alone stop quickly and start immediately. Such cavalry are often prone to confusion when attacked. Even a horse in metal armor can't be protected from the bow and arrow. Once a horse is injured, it is out of control. If you meet a more agile cavalry or infantry opponent, a heavily armored cavalry is helpless.

/kloc-in the 3rd century, longbow was developed in Britain, which accelerated the decline of cavalry as the dominant force at that time. From Edward I of England (1272- 1307) to Henry VIII (1509- 1547), the British monarchs in this period all made great efforts to develop their bow and arrow forces and improve the lethality of the bow, thus making the longbow a great weapon. Its strength and convenient use finally led to the elimination of crossbows.

The longbow was made of elm and hazel, and later it was mainly made of Chinese fir. The best yew is not produced in Britain, but imported from Italy and Spain. The length of the longbow is six feet and the length of the arrow is three feet. The width of the handle of the bow is 1.5 inch, and it gradually tapers to both ends. The ends of the bow are inlaid with horns. The front of the bow is round and the back is flat. Longbow not only has twice the range of crossbows (up to 400 yards, and the effective range is close to 250 yards), but also has a much higher firing rate (from 10 to 12 arrows per minute). In the hands of skilled British soldiers, the hit rate of longbow is much higher than that of crossbow. It is lighter, easier to master and suitable for skirmisher shooting or volley. At that time, it was the most effective and versatile individual weapon on the battlefield.

Longbow has a disadvantage, that is, it must have strong physical strength, coordination in all aspects and superb technology, which requires years of training and practice. In order to enable young people to devote themselves to such hard training, even playing football became illegal in Britain in the14th century.

In the battle of Cresset on August 26th 1346, the infantry, as the main part of the joint combat formation of various services and arms, undoubtedly regained the dominant position in the battle. In this battle, archers were the key force in the British infantry, defeating and severely damaging the most difficult French cavalry at that time.

In July of that year, King Edward III led his troops from Portsmouth and crossed the sea to the north of France to support the allied forces in Flanders and Brittany. In about a month, he crossed the northwest of France and came behind the low-lying countries in Europe (Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, etc.). ) King Philip VI of France led a much stronger army to catch up with him. After the British army crossed the Seine, Edward thought that if it was necessary to retreat further to Flanders, there would be no big obstacles, so he decided to fight the French army here. He found a suitable battlefield near the village of keresey-Empentyou, where there happened to be a gentle slope that controlled the route that the French army would pass.

The British army made careful preparations for the battle. Its right-wing troops are close to the city of Cresay, with a river as a barrier; Its left-wing troops are second only to the front of Wadikurt village, and are covered by trees and trenches dug by infantry. The British army is divided into three teams, each with roughly equal strength. Side by side, the right team was led by Prince of Wales (black prince), the left team was commanded by Earl of Northampton, and the third team was behind them, led by King Edward. The total strength of the British army is about 20 thousand. The king stood on the windmill, from which he could observe the progress of the whole battle and give operational orders to his subordinate commanders in time.

At the center of each detachment is a phalanx composed of about 1000 heavy cavalry who don't ride horses, with 6 rows in depth and 250 yards in length. Most British cavalry don't fight on horseback for two main reasons. The first is to meet the needs of military operations, that is, to provide strong backing for archers and small cavalry reserves engaged in counterattack. Second, out of psychological needs, that is, to convince archers that they will not be abandoned by their own cavalry and can resist the charge of French cavalry.

Archers and archers are deployed in the outer layer of the flank of each unit, and they are arranged forward in echelon form, so that a concentrated fire area can be obtained without affecting each other. The flanking archers of the first two teams are just in front of the center of the British army. They will form an inverted V-shaped formation and aim at the enemy. Behind the center of each detachment is a small number of heavy cavalry reserves riding on horseback. If the French army breaks through the front line, the reserves can launch a counterattack. Infantry in England and Wales dug many pits in the rugged area in front of the position to stop the attack of French cavalry.

It is estimated that the French forces are close to 60,000, including heavy cavalry (composed of knights and ordinary heavy cavalry) of about12,000, employing about 6,000 Genoese crossbowmen infantry, light cavalry17,000, and 25,000 commune recruits.

At about six o'clock in the afternoon, the troops formed a long marching column and entered the British combat position unprepared without any reconnaissance alert. Philip, the king of France, tried his best to stop the troops from advancing and regrouped for rectification. He pulled crossbowmen to the front of the team, but those arrogant and reckless knights couldn't help it. In this way, the French vanguard troops rushed forward behind the Genoese infantry.

The disciplined Genoa hired crossbow infantry to form a neat team and began to climb in the valley. They stopped about 150 yards from the British position and shot arrows at the British, but most of the arrows missed the target. Then they moved on, but they were attacked by an unstoppable British long arrow. Suddenly, the Genoese escaped and retreated. At this time, the impatient French vanguard troops immediately rode forward. They lined up in a messy formation and trampled the Genoese to death in an avalanche and launched a charge. Suddenly the slope was covered with a pile of soldiers and horses in armor. They trampled the Genoese on the ground and the British arrows rained down on them. Because the French army rushed too fast, some soldiers rushed in front of the British army, so a desperate struggle was set off in a few minutes. The powerful British cavalry repelled the French attack.

At this time, the French army still rushed into this terrible melee one by one for no reason, and was hit by the British arrows one by one. The killing went on until late at night. After about fifteen or sixteen assault charges, the French army was torn apart and finally had to give up completely.

In a small valley, piles of French bodies are creepy. Lords and knights 1542, heavy cavalry, crossbowmen and infantry 15000, and thousands of horses. And the British total * * * casualties only about 200 people. Among the British dead, there were only two knights, 40 heavy cavalry and archers, and about 100 Welsh infantry.

The British army defeated about three times its own enemy and won a great victory. But even the British themselves did not fully estimate the full significance of this victory. As for the generals of other countries in the14th century, although they all imitated the British practice and let the heavy cavalry dismount to fight, it is a pity that they failed to find the key to the British victory. They don't know that the secret of British victory lies not only in dismounting knights and archers to fight, but also in wisely dismounting knights and archers to cooperate with each other and closely combine with cavalry on horseback, thus flexibly combining the firepower, defensive endurance and mobile assault force of projected weapons.

During the 14 and 15 centuries, the combat capability of heavy cavalry was not only threatened by the British longbow, but also severely impacted by other aspects. In a century and a half, the phalanx of spears composed of Swiss mountain people has defeated the cavalry of Austria and later France many times. At the same time, with the development of black powder weapons, cavalry can not withstand the attack of trained infantry.

During the14th century and15th century, the success of the British in using longbows made many changes in the tactics of defensive and offensive warfare in European wars, and infantry showed more advantages. Especially the spears used by the Swiss, infantry once again became an important combat force in offensive warfare. Infantry composed of longbows and spears has become the main arms in the armies of western European countries. Under the influence of infantry, cavalry equipment has also been reformed, and cavalry with relatively light weapons and armor began to appear in Europe. Western soldiers who participated in the Turkey War in Eastern Europe found that the light cavalry in Hungary, Turkey and Albania were more effective, and they combined the discipline and assault of unarmed light cavalry with mobility and flexibility. They are a mixture of archery cavalry and pike cavalry. They are very similar to Byzantine heavy cavalry in organization, weapons and tactics, but their armor is light. This was the first step of a series of major changes in European cavalry, but it was not until the17th century that European cavalry really began to play its fighting capacity.

With the decline of cavalry and the rise of infantry, military strategists realized that the nature and characteristics of these two arms were different and could complement each other, so the joint arms combat system came into being. With the arrival of the Renaissance, military thought flourished, and military system and war art were further developed.