Deities of the Roman Religion

In ancient times, the core structure of the Roman Catholic*** religion was based on the three gods Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus.

Jupiter was a great god of Indo-European origin, the god of the sky and the heavens, and the supreme ruler of power. In ancient times, the gods were already worshipped under many different names, which pointed to different attributes. Two kinds of worship had been established in honor of Romulus: one at the sanctuary of Jupiter Feretrius (guardian of oaths), which the shepherds worshipped near a sacred oak tree on Mount Capito, dating from immemorable antiquity; and the other at the sanctuary of Iupiter Stator, who prevented soldiers from fighting in the battlefield. Stator, the god who prevented soldiers from fleeing in battle) was worshipped.

The establishment of the cult of the greatest Jupiter (Jupiter Optimus Maximus) was then seen in Rome, with its temple on Mount Capito, which was also dedicated to Juno and Minerva, and was inaugurated in 509 BC.

Mars was the god of war, who was invoked to protect property from external attack, both within the boundaries of Roman rule and on the private side, in the form of family property. Quirinus was the divine guardian of the tribunes (the ancient administrative units of the city of Rome) and of the people who assembled there, as well as of civic events, as opposed to the soldiers who fought under the patronage of Mars. Among the male deities, Liber Pater was the god who ensured the growth of plants and children; Robigus eliminated terrible disasters and wheat rust; and Consus was the god of the cellars where wheat was stored. Silvanus was the god of forests, similar to Faunus, the god of animal husbandry and agroforestry; Fons was the god of springs; and Neptune was the god of fresh water, who in later times underwent the Hellenistic process and became similar to Poseidon, the god of the sea. The male deity responsible for the care of fire was Vulcan, who was also commonly known as Vulcan and Hercules, as he was assimilated into the Greek god Ephestus in later times and became the wielder of iron among the gods. One of the Roman gods that finds no counterpart in Greek religion is Ianus (Janus), the unique Roman-Ancient Italian god of portals and entrances, who guarded the borders that divided the interior and exterior of the home and the city, defending its inner space from the dangers that pervaded the outside world. When Roman religion began to represent the god with human features, he was depicted with two faces, clearly indicating his duty to watch over two directions with two different faces: the entrance and the exit.

Among the female deities, Juno is the god of vitality and the protector of women in all areas of life. For example, in the name of Juno Pronuba she is the god of marriage, while in the name of Juno Lucina she governs the birth of children and protects pregnant women. Bellona was the god of war; Tellus was the goddess of the earth, the mother of man, animals, plants, all living things; Ceres was concerned with agricultural sacrifices, and was later merged with the Greek Demeter; Pales was the god of the herds, and was associated with the personifications of Plenty - -Konsus, and Ops (Ops), who protected the crops. A god with a double name, Anna Perenna, the incarnation of the year of renewal, was worshipped in the sacred grove near the Tiber River, one kilometer from the Via Flaminia. The most important moon god in ancient Latium was Diana, not of Roman origin. She was the goddess of Nemi, "Diana Nemorensis", a great nature goddess, worshipped in the forests around Lake Nemi. As the god of the moon, she made the light bright at night while protecting women and newborn babies. Although tradition attributes the introduction of the cult of Diana to King Servius Tullius, her temple was built on Mount Aventine, a mountain located beyond the sacred walls (pomoerium) generally reserved for foreign deities. Servius Tullius was also responsible for hosting another deity, Fortuna. According to legend, the king built a large number of altars in Rome in honor of the goddess, the most famous of which is the temple located in the sacred walls of the Foro Boario, next to the Mater Matuta (goddess of the dawn). As a result of Hellenization, Fortuna subsequently became the goddess in charge of human destiny. An extremely important and powerful goddess was Vesta, protector of the hearth and the home, who later became the principal Vesta of the entire city. In fact, the circular temple of Vesta was located in the Plaza de la Assembleia, where the sacred fire was entrusted to the priestesses - these Vestas were virgins with strict responsibilities - who watched over it day and night to keep it burning. Inside the temple was a place of supreme sanctity, where a series of sacred relics that began at the origins of the mythological city were kept, including the statue of Pallas Athena that the warrior Aeneas brought back from Troy. This site was accessible only to priestesses and the Pontifex Maximus.

For Aneas, son of Venus, the legendary founder of Rome, Venus was considered the supernatural mother of the Romans. It was only from the Greek Aphrodite that she was conceived as the goddess of love and beauty, taking on the characteristics of those gods. In 135 B.C., the emperor Hadrian began construction of the largest temple in ancient Rome, dedicated to Venus and the goddess Roma, which was completed in 141.

It is important to note, however, that in the most ancient times, the places where worship was practiced were the perceived abodes of the gods, such as forests, caves, and forest springs. By convention, the original Roman temples were erected only at the beginning of the imperial era, and this seems to be confirmed by archaeological research, as evidenced, for example, by the terracotta architectural elements found near the Temple of the Caesars, the Piazza della Assemblazione, and the Temple of the Lord, as well as by the offerings made in the consecrated catacombs.

Through contact with foreigners, especially the Etruscans and Greeks, Rome's religion gradually changed over time.

At their height in the 6th century B.C., the Etruscans expanded northward into the Po Valley while occupying the Latium region in the south, ruling Rome from the Tarquins until the Campanians.

The Etruscans had a particular influence on the appearance of the city and transformed Rome from a cluster of villages into a true urban center surrounded by walls, with piazzas and temples. In the 6th century BC, Rome was characterized by a large number of temples built on Etruscan models, such as the one dedicated to the three Capitan gods on the Capitoline Hill. It stands as a typical Etruscan-Ancient Italian temple on a very high pedestal, reachable by a flight of stairs. It has three inner sanctuaries, or naves, and three wings, the whole of which, except the rear, is surrounded by a row of columns. The decoration consists mainly of terracotta panels and sculpture.

Etruscan influence is also seen in an important religious dimension: divination. By observing the signals that some of the gods transmitted to people in order to reveal their needs. Adept at analyzing and interpreting animal entrails, the Etruscans combined their knowledge with their observation of omens in order to determine how best to perform the necessary religious rituals in exchange for the gods' mercy and good deeds before taking actual action.

The Greeks began to appear in Italy between 770 and 774 B.C., at which time they established the oldest Western colony at Cuma in Campania. Thereafter, they continued to establish colonies in southern Italy, as far south as Sicily, until this entire region had the new name Magna Graecia (meaning Great Greece). It was in this region that the Romans first came into contact with Greek civilization, and it was through Etruscan mediation and trade that the Romans established their first and closest contact with the Greeks. The first and closest contact between the Romans and the Greeks was established through Etruscan mediation and trade, and the real interaction between Rome and Greece took place thereafter.

The Hellenization of Roman religion led to the assimilation of the Roman gods into the Greek gods. Although the Roman gods kept their original names and sacred places, they acquired personalities, images, and myths similar to those of the Greek gods. This process was not forced, but spontaneous and natural, and was facilitated by continued contact with Greek traders who came to Rome, while through a more refined method, the extremely rich mythological scenes on the vast array of vessels exported from Greece, the Romans came to recognize and venerate the Greek gods and heroes.

Additionally, Roman religion was further expanded through the acceptance of several Greek deities. Among the most popular were Hercules, who dropped his heroic traits and became a monotheistic god; Castor and Pollux, two twin heroes collectively known as Dioscuri; and Apollo, whose worship began between the late 6th and 5th centuries BCE by the Greek colony of Cuma introduced to Rome. Initially worshipped by the Romans as the god of medicine and speech in a temple outside the sacred city walls, Apollo was considered to have played such an important role in Augustus' victory over Antony and Cleopatra at the Pointe d'Actium in 31 B.C. that Augustus built a temple in his honor on the Palatine Hill.

From the beginning, Rome had a variety of priests. Legend has it that its organization came from King Numa Pompilius.

The organization of religious ceremonies was entrusted to groups of priests. At the top of the hierarchy were the rex sacrorum (kings of the ceremonies), who were chosen to undertake the religious activities performed by the former emperors. Next came the priests (flamens), ***15 in number, the three principal priests (the priests of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus) and twelve secondary priests who were responsible for the performance of the worship of particular deities; the sixteen high priests, headed by the supreme priest, who supervised the ceremonies of religious worship; and the Vestal Virgins, headed by the chief Vestal Virgin (Virgo Vestalis Maxima), the Vestal Virgins, who Vestal Virgins (Virgo Vestalis Maxima), the priestesses who consecrated Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, initially four, then increased to six; and Augurs (diviners), who were responsible for interpreting signs and omens. Greek influence can be seen in the establishment of a council of priests, the Decemviri, who were responsible for deliberating on the Libri sibillini, a collection of prophecies from the soothsayer of Cuma. It is rumored that she sold this to the ancient emperors of Rome. These books were consulted in difficult situations, such as natural or social calamities, or to explain unusual events. Lastly, there were the epulos (master of ceremonies), who were responsible for organizing the sacred banquets that took place during religious ceremonies.

Religion in the private sphere was very important, and was essentially linked to the many deities that guarded the home, and dwellings had atriums, buildings dedicated to the worship of the deities. In the earliest period, the atrium contained a fireplace, of which the goddess Vesta was the guardian. Subsequently, this part of the area contained small shrines to the lararium, which were used for the worship of other protectors of the house and the family: the god of the house, Lari, is represented as several youths in short, loose-fitting tunics with waistbands, and is placed on either side of the lararium in the process of pouring the sacrificial wine from the horned containers. Genius, a kind of male guardian angel of the family, is represented as a male figure wearing a wide tunic covering his head; Penates bears the responsibility of protecting the closet, where the family's provisions are stored; and Mani is worshipped as the ancestor of the family. All important events in family life - births, deaths, marriages - were celebrated with specific religious ceremonies in which all family members participated. Family ceremonies were run by the father (pater familias), who could be assisted by his wife and children, who handed him sacrificial implements, or by dedicated persons who assisted him in special ceremonies, such as priests or later assistants in charge of slaughtering sacrificial animals.

As just mentioned, the Romans were equally happy to accept the worship of foreign deities, from cities they had conquered or destroyed. The Romans believed that they could not have won decisive victories without the permission of the patron gods of the cities with which they were at war. Therefore, the Romans offered sacrifices to these deities, invited them to leave the besieged cities, and then transported them to Rome, where they could enjoy sublime glory.

The first Eastern deity to be accepted by Rome was the Phrygian goddess Cybele, the mother goddess, goddess of mountains and wilderness nature, and ruler of productivity and fertility. A temple was dedicated to her on the Palatine Hill in 191 BC. Belief in the Egyptian goddess Isis is well known. There was a temple dedicated to her in Pompeii, filled with beautifully colored frescoes, sacred objects, and works of art suggesting the worship of the goddess. All the decorations are now housed in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. There is a famous fresco from Herculaneum depicting the ritual worship of Isis. A baton-wielding priest leads the assembled choir, the members of which are lined up in two lines on the steps in front of the temple, and as the sistra, a bell-like instrument characteristic of the worship of Isis, is announced at the top of the steps, the chief priest steps out to show the vessel containing the holy water of the Nile.

Also widespread was the worship of the Indo-Iranian deity Mitra, who was well known among soldiers and merchants. Mitra is often depicted as slaughtering a bull, an act that symbolizes the new birth. Numerous places of worship from Roman times have been preserved. Often underground or semi-subterranean, these sites are reminiscent of caves, the birthplaces of the gods people believed in.

Similarly, there are dedications depicting hands in a blessing gesture, typical of the worship of the Phrygian or Thracian deity Sabazius, the god of plants, who was well known in Greece as early as the 6th century B.C.E., and who came to the West during the Roman era, similar to Zeus or Dionysius.

Augustus the Great was very serious about reviving the ancient traditions of Roman religion. After gaining the throne in 27 B.C., his worship of his own personality influenced later emperors, thus laying a solid foundation of faith in him and his family. As a result, Augustus established the cult of Genius Augusti, the tutelary deity of Augustus, appointing special priests, the Augustals, to perform the cult rituals. Contests were instituted in honor of Augustus the Great, temples dedicated to him were erected, and he was given the distinction of being a god after his death. Augustus' successors continued the tradition, and deification - equating the emperor with the gods - became more frequent by the day. Nero insisted on deifying himself as Apollo, while Commodus chose Heracles.