How did China's foreign trade change in the late Ming Dynasty compared with that in the Tang and Song Dynasties?

Since the Tang and Song Dynasties, the commodity economy has developed greatly and the citizen class has been growing. Economic changes greatly affect people's ideological changes and the development of literature and art.

First, the impact of commodity economy on ideas

1, the main background of ideological criticism in Ming and Qing Dynasties

The impact of commodity economy and the loss of vitality of Neo-Confucianism in Zhu Cheng are the fundamental reasons for the great changes in the ideological field during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The emergence of ideological criticism in Ming and Qing Dynasties is the inevitable result of China's social and economic development.

2. Economic concept

(1) Li Zhi's view of justice and benefit

With the development of commodity economy, society pursues profits and money worship prevails, and traditional moral concepts are violently impacted. Scholar-officials who respected the ethical code advocated "preserving justice and eliminating human desires", which killed these "heretical" consciousness of rebelling against Neo-Confucianism ideologically.

Li Zhi hated these moralists who were full of benevolence, righteousness and morality and maintained traditional ethics, accusing them of using Taoism as a stepping stone to seek high positions and rich salaries for themselves.

He believes that everyone has his own privacy, "dressing and eating is the physics of interpersonal relationship", and pursuing material enjoyment is "innate nature". Everyone can follow the "natural nature", "suit his own interests and give full play to his own strengths" and let his personality develop freely, instead of being forced to obey the interests and wishes of the rulers.

(2) The three thinkers in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties advocated that "business is the foundation"

At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the commodity economy flourished and the status of industry and commerce became increasingly prominent. The traditional thought of "emphasizing agriculture and restraining commerce" has been sharply challenged. Progressive thinkers in the late Ming Dynasty put forward the idea of "industry and commerce as the foundation".

The proposition that "industry and commerce are the foundation" reflects the requirements of the civil class for economic development, conforms to the trend of historical development, has the color of early democratic thought and has a progressive role. This is a correct idea that meets the needs of economic development, but it was not valued by the rulers at that time.

(3) China's critical thoughts in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties did not form the fundamental reason for the magnificent Enlightenment in Western Europe.

The germination of capitalism in Ming and Qing Dynasties was relatively fragile, which made the emergence and development of early democratic ideas lack a strong material foundation.

Second, the impact of commodity economy on calligraphy

1, Song Dynasty-advocating interests and ignoring statutes.

With the rise of the civil class, social life is rich and colorful, and the style of writing is very prosperous. Due to the development of Neo-Confucianism at that time, people also had new characteristics in literary aesthetics: emphasizing the expression of artistic conception and interest.

2. Ming dynasty-showing the trend of popularization, secularization and personalization.

Due to the development of commodity economy, Suzhou and Hangzhou have become not only the national economic center, but also the cultural center where scholars gather. The calligraphy of literati was valued at this time, and most of them had deep cultural accomplishment. On the basis of inheriting the excellent calligraphy tradition, they pursue personalized transformation and strive to express their personal feelings in calligraphy.

Third, the influence of commodity economy on painting

1, folk painting

Since the Song Dynasty, on the one hand, the level of social productivity has been greatly improved, commerce has flourished on the basis of the development of agricultural handicrafts, and the economic functions and entertainment services of traditional political cities have been unprecedentedly strengthened, forming a large number of purely economic towns; On the other hand, due to the development and perfection of the imperial examination system, the invention of printing, the popularization of books and the level of folk culture have been greatly improved; Coupled with the formation and prosperity of China's traditional operas, folk secular culture is also increasingly prosperous.

2. Ming and Qing Dynasties

Literati painting has completely occupied the painting world and become the mainstream of Chinese painting. "Times change and social unrest" actually refers to the prosperity of urban commodity economy and the rise and development of capitalism, the loosening of traditional social order and the change of values, the impact brought by the changes of Ming and Qing Dynasties, and the ideological and cultural autocracy under foreign rule. Therefore, many painters and painting schools with unique styles and eclectic methods appeared in this period.

Fourthly, the influence of commodity economy on Song Ci.

The increasing prosperity of urban life in Song Dynasty attracted a large number of literati. Compared with the countryside, they are more obsessed with the city's life of singing and dancing and feasting.

Fifth, the influence of commodity economy on novels.

1, Song Ti —— Pushing China's novels to a new stage

The background mainly includes the prosperity of urban economy, the rise of citizen class and the popularity of storytelling in Song Dynasty.

2. Novels in Ming and Qing Dynasties flourished unprecedentedly and became the mainstream of literature at that time.

(1) Reasons for prosperity

(1) A large number of industrial and commercial towns have risen, commodity economy has developed, and the civil class has risen.

② the development of printing industry

③ The general improvement of social literacy rate in Ming and Qing Dynasties.

(2) Features

(1) Popular literature flourished and reached a mature stage.

(2) It is full of money worship and mercenary social atmosphere.

③ It has the color of criticizing reality.

Sixth, the influence of commodity economy on traditional Chinese opera.

1. China ancient opera-the formation of Southern Opera in Song Dynasty

In Song Dynasty, the social economy developed rapidly, and the economic development promoted the changes of the ancient urban pattern in China. The closed square market system in the city was abandoned in the Song Dynasty. There are many markets and large-scale comprehensive entertainment venues-tile houses (the largest tile house in Bianliang, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty, can accommodate thousands of people, while there are more than 20 tile houses in Lin 'an, the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty). Various popular cultures, especially operas, have made great progress in this environment. Southern Opera is formed on the basis of folk songs and dances.

2. The maturity of China's ancient operas-Yuan Zaju.

Traditional Chinese opera is a comprehensive art, and its development needs a certain material foundation. The local prosperity brought by the unbalanced economic development in Yuan Dynasty is an important reason for the prosperity of Yuan Zaju.

In the Yuan Dynasty, Mongolian rulers conquered the Central Plains, and the economy of the Central Plains was severely devastated by years of war. However, Mongolian nobles pursued the luxury of life and concentrated a large number of craftsmen in the city. The constant influx of displaced people into cities in search of livelihood has also led to abnormal prosperity in some cities. For example, in the Yuan Dynasty, the capital city was a metropolis, with frequent commercial activities and extremely expanding population. The prosperity of the city and the growth of the citizen class provided a large number of actors, audiences and venues for the prosperity of Yuan Zaju, which contributed to the prosperity of Yuan Zaju.

3. The heyday of China's ancient opera-Peking Opera.

Beijing opera was conceived and formed in Beijing, which was related to Beijing's special position in the country at that time. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Beijing, as the capital of the empire, was the political, economic and cultural center of the whole country. There are not only a large number of royal nobles and officials here, but also businessmen from all over the world.

Since businessmen from all over the world came to Beijing, they have established business halls and enterprises. In addition to the facilities for offering sacrifices to gods, there are generally stages in major halls. On the festive day of New Year's Day, the guild hall will raise funds to invite troupes to perform in the guild hall.

In this case, artists from all directions gathered in Beijing to meet the cultural and entertainment needs of the royal family, officials, businessmen and residents in Beijing, and Beijing naturally became a major center of leisure culture.

How to understand the high development of farming economy in Ming and Qing dynasties, but also the lag and crisis on the eve of modern times?

In China during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there were some signs of conflict between the old and the new in the economic field. This new economic factor, separated from farming economy, tends to evolve into industrial civilization. However, under the constraints and obstacles of the closed-door policy of attaching importance to agriculture and restraining business, the germination of capitalist relations of production failed to form a powerful force to sweep away the old economic base. Compared with the Great Leap Forward of western industrial civilization, when Kanggan was at the peak of farming economy, the translocation of the rise and fall of Chinese and western national strength was basically a foregone conclusion.

Just when the peasant uprising and the Ming and Qing wars raged in the late Ming Dynasty, the bourgeois revolution began in Britain from 65438 to 0640. In the following 1200 years, major western countries have successively completed the transformation to modern industrial countries. The industrial revolution made the productivity created by the western bourgeoisie in less than 100 years "more than all the productivity created in all previous times, or even greater." These western countries crossed the ocean crazily, plundered money, sold slaves, opened up markets and established colonial rule.

The emperors in the prosperous period of Kanggan had no knowledge of the historical changes in the development of world industrial civilization. They closed their doors to the outside world, suppressed and cracked down on industry and commerce at home, and practiced cultural autocracy, which seriously destroyed the seeds of modernization factors. The contrast between the ignorant and arrogant Qing Empire and the western powers quickly reversed. /kloc-At the beginning of the 9th century, Britain engaged in an evil opium trade, and China society fell into a deep crisis.