Traditional Culture Encyclopedia - Almanac inquiry - Why was Yang Guifei forced to die?
Why was Yang Guifei forced to die?
This article is taken from Meng Man's Tang Dynasty: Meng Man's Song of Eternal Sorrow.
In the history of China, there is a post station that is particularly famous. That's the Ant Post Station, which is famous not because the post station itself is special, but because it is associated with a famous tragedy. In 756, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty killed Yang Guifei here during his escape, which is known as the "Change of Ma Su". So, what is the change of Ma Wei?
A, mess to flee Tianbao fifteen years * * nine, Tongguan lost. How did Tang Xuanzong know the news? He knew it from the fire of peace. What is a safe fire? Taiping fire is actually a beacon fire, which was used to transmit military information in ancient times. Since the Anshi Rebellion, beacon towers have been set up from Tongguan to Chang 'an. Every night, Tongguan lit a fire, and Chang 'an knew it was safe today. However, on the evening of the 9th, Tongguan fell and no one made a fire. Looking east, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty could no longer see the familiar smoke. Now, he is really worried. Did Tongguan fall? What shall we do? Let's discuss the countermeasures with the minister. What did Premier Yang say? He wept bitterly at his minister. He said: "In the past ten years, it has been reported that An Lushan is going to rebel. Your Majesty just doesn't believe it, and it is not the fault of the Prime Minister." I put the blame on Xuanzong as soon as I came up. As for himself, he forced An Lushan to rebel first, and then made Geshuhan send troops, but he forgot. It's sad to think that Emperor Xuanzong finally trusted such a prime minister.
However, it is useless to pass the buck. What should the court do next? This Yang has already thought it over. He said, Your Majesty, it is better to give up Chang 'an for the time being and take shelter from the wind. Where to run? Run to Shudu! Why did you go to Shu? First of all, Shu is Yang's sphere of influence. Yang has been our correspondent in Bo, and Shu is his old base, which is easy to control. Second, Sichuan is safe. Surrounded by mountains, Sichuan Basin is an independent geographical unit, which is easy to defend but difficult to attack. In addition, our era was also one of the top ten military regions in Xuanzong era, with more than 30 thousand soldiers, so it was not a problem to keep one side safe. Third, Shu, known as the land of abundance since ancient times, is relatively rich and can support a government in exile. Moreover, since An Lushan rose up, playing the banner of one side, he sent people to build cities and reserve materials in Bo. If he really didn't plan it, he came here to take refuge. I didn't expect that now not only I want to run for my life, but even the emperor wants to run for his life, so my previous reserves are even more prescient! Yang put forward the escape plan. How did his ministers react? According to historical records, most officials are negative about Nuo Nuo and can't say anything. However, at this moment, a junior official spoke. He said: "Please recruit brave people in the city and court officials to lead their children out of the army." Who's talking? Gao Shi, the supervisor of history, is also a famous frontier poet. At present, Gao Shi, as a literati, generously proposed to mobilize the whole people and defend the city to the death, which really added luster to the literati all over the world!
Escape or guarding the city, two options are before Tang Xuanzong, which one will Tang Xuanzong choose? You know, it takes a lot of courage to defend this city. Thirty or forty years ago, perhaps Tang Xuanzong still had energy, but it has been fifteen years since Tianbao, and the spirit of Tang Xuanzong has already fallen, not the desperate Saburo of that year. Therefore, it is basically useless to do any ideological struggle. Tang Xuanzong made up his mind to run! How to run? In order to ensure safety, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty first released smoke bombs, claiming to personally levy, and gave the palace key to the eunuch Bian Lingcheng for safekeeping, as if the emperor really wanted to go out to meet the enemy. However, just after the show, in the afternoon, Emperor Xuanzong quietly moved from the Xingqing Palace in daily life to the Forbidden Garden in the north of Chang 'an. When we arrived at the Forbidden Park, it was the place where the imperial army was stationed. That night, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty ordered General Chen, the Long Wu, to reward the imperial army, and selected 900 horses for him. The next day, in the early morning of 13th, 15th year of Tianbao, it rained in Mao Mao. Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty took Yang Guifei's sisters, the prince, princess, concubine and grandson who lived in the palace, as well as the prime ministers Yang, Wei, Gu Yushi Wei and their families, and several trusted eunuchs such as Gao Lishi, accompanied by thousands of imperial guards, and anointed their feet behind the west gate of the Forbidden Garden.
This kind of escape is really not authentic. We didn't tell anyone except those mentioned just now. Even the princes, princesses and concubines who live outside the palace have been abandoned, not to mention the general ministers. So, on the morning of the 13th, officials from civil and military departments appeared in court as usual. They didn't see anything wrong until the door of the palace. The guard of honor stood guard neatly, and even the dripping sound of the copper pot in the palace could be heard. But when the door of the palace was opened, everything was in chaos. I saw the ladies-in-waiting shouting and running around, saying that they could not find the emperor! All of a sudden, the situation is chaotic. Knowing that the emperor left them and ran away, the princes also ran out quickly. The dignitaries in the city rushed out, and the people outside the city rushed to the city. Why? Take advantage of chaos to rob gold and silver treasures. It's not enough to rob the nobles' mansions. Some people actually rode donkeys to the emperor's hall, and there was no king's law at all. Didn't Tang Xuanzong give the eunuch the keys to the palace? Now that the emperor has run away, what will Bianling City do with these keys? He sealed the key and sent it directly to An Lushan. This Bian Lingcheng is one of the most trusted eunuchs in Tang Xuanzong. Six months ago, he instigated Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty to kill two generals, Gao Xianzhi and Feng Changqing. Now, Bian Lingcheng was waiting for An Lushan to receive Chang 'an, so he quickly handed in the key himself. This is really a great irony. The employment situation of Xuanzong in Tang Dynasty is unknown, which can be seen from here!
Chang 'an is in chaos. Was the road to escape smooth for Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty? Although Tang Xuanzong made arrangements in advance, he actually encountered many more difficulties than he imagined. What difficulties did he encounter? First of all, there is no food. Didn't Tang Xuanzong and his party leave in the early hours of the morning? At nine o'clock in the morning, I came to Wang Xian Palace in Xianyang. It's time for breakfast. It turned out that before fleeing, the eunuch Wang was sent first. Tell him to inform state and county officials to arrange accommodation along the way. But when we got to the King Fairy Palace, no one went to pick up the driver. Why? It turned out that the king of Xianyang county magistrate heard that the emperor had escaped, so simply, they boarded the ship together and fled! I didn't have this breakfast until noon. No choice, Yang had to run to the market, bought some Hu cakes and gave them to the emperor first. However, others still have no food. At this time, people around heard that the emperor was coming, and they all gathered around slowly. Xuanzong put down his airs and asked them, "Do you have any food at home? Don't choose fine and coarse, as long as you have it, feed it to the children. " When people saw that the emperor was in such pain, they rushed to provide their own meals. What good things can ordinary people have? There are many grains and beans mixed in the rice. Didn't we say that Tang Xuanzong's daughters provided him with food, and a meal would cost ten industries of middle-class families? What a sumptuous meal it was! If in normal times, these princes and grandchildren can't eat this kind of thing! However, as the saying goes, bran is as sweet as honey when you are hungry. The little princes and princesses of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty were too hungry to be picky. They scrambled to eat with their hands, and then ate them all, but they were not full. Seeing the emperor fall on this occasion, the people couldn't help crying, and Xuanzong also hid his face and wept.
At this time, an old man named Guo Congjin came to Xuanzong and suggested: "Lushan has ulterior motives, and it was not built in a day; Others accuse their accomplices of ignorance, and your majesty often punishes them, allowing them to succeed in treachery and spread it to your majesty. Therefore, the late king extended his visit to Zhongliang for the sake of Guang Zhi, which is also the reason. I still remember Song Jing as prime minister, bluntly saying that the world depends on Anping. Since the Qing dynasty, courtiers have been secretive, but your majesty doesn't know that they are flattering others. Minister Caotian will know that it has been a long time today, but there is no way to achieve nine levels of strictness and sincerity. If not, why should I sue your majesty? " Hearing this, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty quickly said, "I didn't know that, and I regretted it!" If it weren't for that disaster, I'm afraid that Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty would never see such a person or hear such heartfelt words!
Leave Xianyang and continue westward. /kloc-at midnight on October 3rd, Tang Xuanzong and his party went to Jincheng County. Jincheng, formerly known as Shiping, was renamed Jincheng after Tang Zhongzong sent Princess Jincheng to Tubo. The situation in Jincheng County is not as good as that in Xianyang County. Xianyang just escaped from the county magistrate, and Jincheng not only escaped from the county magistrate, but also escaped from the people. When Xuanzong and his party came to the post office, the postmen also ran away, and there was not even a lamp in the post office. By this time, Xuanzong and others had been walking all day, exhausted and in the dark. Who cares about respect and inferiority? They are prone on the floor. The dignity of the emperor, the authority of the prime minister and the delicacy of the imperial concubine are all gone under such circumstances.
Second, the changes in Ma Su The first day of Xuanzong's escape passed like this, and he continued to walk the next day. At noon, he went to Mawei post in Xingping county. At this time, there was a problem with the army. What's the problem? Imperial soldiers began to complain, louder and more excited. How come... Actually, it's easy to understand. After a day and a half of tossing, the Royal Guards are already tired, hungry and exhausted. Moreover, these imperial guards are all from Chang 'an, and their parents and wives are all in Chang 'an. Now they are getting farther and farther away, their future is bleak, and their return date is even more bleak. Physical hardship and mental despair made the soldiers' dissatisfaction more and more serious, and the scene began to get a little out of control. What should we do?
As I said before, the leader of the imperial army is General Chen Longwu. This is an old minister. Nearly half a century ago, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty was killed, and Chen was the former enemy commander in chief. Now, listening to the complaints of Chen soldiers, I feel a sense of deja vu. How do you feel? Coup! With years of experience, he knew that if this anger could not be exported, it would probably cause mutiny among soldiers, and the situation would be unimaginable! However, how can we channel the soldiers' anger? Chen thought of Yang. At that time, it was already a common understanding that Yang provoked troubles. Everyone gnashed their teeth when they talked about Yang, and Chen himself wanted to kill him. In that case, why not let the soldiers kill him to vent their anger! This not only dispelled the dissatisfaction of soldiers, but also eliminated pests for the country. Isn't it the best of both worlds?
Chen Ye knew, however, that a general, without the support of the high-level behind him, wanted to kill the Prime Minister. Isn't that tantamount to rebellion? Chen doesn't want to rebel. Who do you ask for support? Tang Xuanzong? That's impossible. Yang is his pet. He won't agree. At that time, I thought of Prince Chen. The prince is the second person in the imperial court, and Chen Ye knows that the prince and Yang also have contradictions. Why not seek the support of the prince? So Chen found the prince's confidant eunuch Li and asked him to tell the prince about the idea of killing Yang. How did Prince Hengli react? You know, I hate Yang for a long time. When Li made a big case and attacked the prince, Yang was a pawn. When Yang became prime minister, he suppressed it everywhere. What Hengli hates most is that after the Anshi Rebellion began, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty once asked the prince to supervise the country, which was a good thing that the prince had been waiting for for for a long time. But Yang was afraid that it would be bad for him to go to power, so he pleaded with the imperial concubine and threatened to die, forcing Xuanzong to cancel the plan again. Now, following Yang to his site is even more desperate. If he comes to Shu, his position as a prince will be even more difficult to protect! So, of course, I hope Chen kills Yang.
But how do you make a statement? Hengli is a cautious man, and his attitude is also very peaceful. According to Zi Jian, "the prince is undecided". What do you mean, undetermined? The real meaning of unresolved is not that we can't decide, but that we don't object, and if we don't object, we agree. With this attitude of the prince, Chen is practical. He summoned the generals of the imperial army and said, "If we break up and leave today, we will be shaken. Isn't it that Yang will cut off his self-protection and complain about the negotiation between the ruling and opposition parties? If you don't thank the world for this, why bother complaining about the four seas! " This is a battle mobilization. What did the generals say? Their anger was really aroused by the old general. Said in unison, "I've thought about it for a long time, and I'm willing to die!" " In this way, the matter of killing Yang is settled. The powder keg is ready. Now, all that is needed is a primer.
At the right moment, Yang came back from patrolling outside the post station. As soon as he came back, he was immediately surrounded by more than twenty Tubo people. These people are the envoys sent by Tubo to the Tang Dynasty. They just arrived in Chang 'an, just in time for the emperor to flee, and they escaped together. Along the way, they also ate the last meal without the next. When they saw Yang Shi, they stopped him from asking for food. Before Yang could answer, the imperial guard shouted, "Guo Zhong and his accomplices!" Then, an arrow came at Yang and stuck in the saddle. Seeing that the situation was not good, Yang quickly dismounted and ran into the west gate of the post station, asking the emperor for protection. How could the Imperial Guard let him go? He chased him, raised his sword and immediately put Yang's head. That's not Japanese. They also cut Yang into eight pieces, tore off his flesh and ate it, and then hung his head outside the post office with a gun. The soldiers beside him cheered loudly. Hearing the sound outside, Wei Jinfang, an adviser to the ancient empire, hurried out to see what had happened. When he saw Yang's head, Wei was startled and said, "How dare you hurt the Prime Minister!" " By this time, the soldiers had killed their eyes. When they saw Wei, they came over with knives and killed Wei. Another prime minister of Wei also ran out to check the situation. When the mutinous soldiers hit him with a stick, Wei was covered with blood. Seeing that the third life was about to die, fortunately, several soldiers knew him and shouted, "Don't hurt Wei Xianggong." This just survived. At this time, the soldiers lost control of their emotions and surrounded the post. At that time, there were all kinds of killings.
At that time, Tang Xuanzong was resting in the back pavilion and was disturbed. He sent someone to see what had happened. Everyone went out to see it, and came back to report that Yang rebelled and was killed by the imperial army! Tang Xuanzong was shocked and said, "Is the loyalty of the country against you in turn?" Why was Tang Xuanzong surprised? Because he knows it is impossible, anyone can rebel at this time, but Yang can't. Why? Because we also know that at that time, not only the rebels claimed to kill Yang, but also the Tang Dynasty, and our own people hated Yang. Therefore, if Yang wants to keep his life, he can only rely on the emperor. How can he resist? It's ok to say that Yang has other problems, but it's absolutely wrong to say rebellion! However, since the imperial army killed Yang, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty dared not say what to do, so he had to walk out of the gate of the post station on crutches to comfort the soldiers surrounded by the post station. Xuanzong said: I have long wanted to kill him, but I haven't found a chance yet. Now you kill him, which is just right. Thank you. Now that Yang is dead, go back to your team. However, when these words were finished, the soldiers remained motionless and stared at Tang Xuanzong. So, Tang Xuanzong panicked. Do they still want to kill me? Send Gao Lishi to ask. Gao Lishi went over and asked, and the soldier spoke: "The thief is still there." What do you mean "the thief is still here"? Chen explained very clearly: "Loyalty to the country is not suitable for the imperial concubine. May your majesty cut grace and correct the law. " When Tang Xuanzong heard this sentence, he immediately felt that it was a blow. He paused and said, "I should take care of myself." Turn around and go back to the post office. When he entered the post, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty suddenly felt very dizzy, and he could hardly stand up. He stayed there motionless with his head down on crutches. Too many things have happened in the past day or two, and he can't imagine how things have become like this! Isn't he the son of heaven in his heyday? Why did he suddenly lose the capital Chang 'an and come to this place? Aren't he and the imperial concubine fairy household? Why suddenly let him execute the imperial concubine! Ordinary couples can still support each other, grow old together, and be emperors themselves. How can they not even protect their beloved princess? Wei Wei, the son of Wei Jian Su, was very worried when he saw the emperor not talking for a long time. He stood up and said, "Today, people are angry and their safety is in jeopardy. May your majesty make a quick decision! " Say, attached to give Xuanzong knocked a few times on the head, blood flow down. Xuanzong looked at him stupidly and said, "The imperial concubine always lives in the deep palace, knowing the loyalty of the country and scheming!" At that time, Gao Lishi beside talking. He said: "The imperial concubine is innocent, but the soldiers killed the loyalty of the country, and the imperial concubine is by your side. How dare you be safe! I hope your majesty will think about it. If the soldiers are safe, your majesty will be safe. " This is too thorough. If you don't kill the imperial concubine, I'm afraid the soldiers will kill you together!
This sentence awakened Tang Xuanzong. You know, after all, Tang Xuanzong was a politician, not a lover. He loves Yang Guifei. He can be a person who "but his love has been concentrated on one body for three thousand years". However, it is impossible for him not to love mountains and rivers, not to love beauty, and not to mention that "life is precious and love is more expensive." In his own life and political future, he and Yang Guifei weighed on the scale. Tang Xuanzong thought he was more important. What should I do? In desperation, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty asked Gao Lishi to take Yang Guifei to the Buddhist temple to say goodbye to her. Yang Guifei said: "I hope everyone has a good life. I am sincerely responsible for the country, and there is nothing to hate when I die. " Tang Xuanzong also said with tears: "May the concubine live well." After the ceremony, Gao Lishi strangled Yang Guifei in the Buddhist temple. This is what Bai Juyi said in "Song of Eternal Sorrow": "People in the army stop, and no one will move until under their hooves, and they will trample on those moths. The gorgeous hairpin fell to the ground, and no one picked it up, a green and white Hosta and a golden hairy bird. The emperor couldn't save her, so he had to cover his face. Later, when he turned to look, there was blood and tears. "This year, Yang was thirty-eight years old. At the age of twenty-two, she came to Tang Xuanzong's side and spent the happiest days with him in sixteen years. Finally, she exchanged her life for the peace of Xuanzong in Tang Dynasty. A beautiful woman, so she died. Regarding this tragedy, Yuan Mei, a man of the Qing Dynasty, wrote: "In the end, the king lost the alliance of the former dynasty, and the love of Jiangshan was more important than beauty. Yuhuan rewarded the taste of husband and wife, and there was no rebirth on earth. "
After Yang Guifei's death, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty ordered her body to be carried to the courtyard of the posthouse, and invited several generals such as Chen to come in for an autopsy. When Chen saw this, he took off his armor and kowtowed to Xuanzong. Chen said, "Yang has brought disaster to the country and people, and caused great loss of life. Your majesty has started broadcasting. It's a sin to kill him for the country! " Obviously, Chen knew that Xuanzong was a wise man, so he stopped talking about Yang's rebellion and directly put forward his own reasons for killing him. So, how did Tang Xuanzong answer him? Xuanzong said: I don't know people's wisdom, and I don't choose people properly. I've gradually realized it myself recently. I was going to kill him after I went to Sichuan, but now you have given up my long-cherished wish in advance, and I want to reward you. How can you say you are guilty! Chen heard Xuanzong say so, and quickly led his men to shout long live. Only then did the soldiers finally disband, regroup and start again. Ma Wei's change has basically ended.
Third, the eternal mystery of the death of the imperial concubine. So, how should we evaluate this coup? I think there are three issues that deserve our consideration.
First, what is the nature of Ma Wei's change? Ma Yipo mentioned in Ci Hai explained this way: "In the Tang Anshi rebellion, Xuanzong ran from Chang 'an to Chengdu and hanged Yang Guifei here. "When people mention the changes in Ma Su, the first reaction is definitely to kill Yang Guifei. But in fact, Ma Su's defection was not to kill Yang Guifei, but to kill Prime Minister Yang. As we have said, after Yang took office, he basically did nothing good, and it has reached the point where the government and the people are angry. In addition, Yang also participated in the Anshi Rebellion, the fall of Tongguan and the escape of Xuanzong. In this case, Yang became the target of public criticism. Not only the imperial soldiers wanted to kill him, but also the princes and ordinary people didn't hate him and didn't want to kill him. It is in this general mood that not killing people is not enough to anger people that Chen Fa moved the imperial soldiers and created the change of Ma Su. Therefore, killing Yang is the main goal of this coup. As for Yang Guifei's death, it is largely the result of Yang Guozhong's participation, which can only be said to be a by-product of this matter.
Second, since the target of the coup was not Yang Guifei, why did Yang Guifei become the protagonist in people's memory? I think this is a psychological problem. What psychology? The first is sympathy for the weak. A weak woman who died in chaos will arouse people's sympathy in any time and space background. Besides, Yang Guifei is such a peerless beauty. There is a saying that "tragedy is to break beautiful things for people to see". Of all the tragedies, is there anything more touching than the tragic death of a beautiful woman? It is precisely because of this that people will take her as the center and even make up many stories about the immortality of the imperial concubine. The most influential thing was that Yang Guifei was killed by a maid, and I later lived in Japan. In 1980s, Japanese movie star Yamaguchi Momoe claimed that she was a descendant of Yang Guifei. So, is it possible for Yang Guifei to escape death and cross to Japan? In fact, it is impossible. You know, although there were commercial exchanges between the Tang Dynasty and Japan, the road was still full of hardships due to the limitation of navigation ability. Take the monk Jian Zhen as an example. He traveled around Japan in the Millennium, using 1 1 year before and after, and finally succeeded after five failures. Yang Guifei, a weak woman, how can she cross the long enemy-occupied area in the war and successfully cross the sea? These legends are just a good wish of people. The second psychology is the memory of the prosperous times. After the Anshi Rebellion, the prosperity of the Tang Dynasty is gone forever, and people living in the late Tang Dynasty have a deep memory of that period of stability and prosperity. At this time, Yang Guifei, plump, gorgeous, good at singing and dancing and rich, gradually became a symbol of wealth in people's minds. Her tragic death also marked the end of the prosperous era. In this case, the political color of Ma Wei's change was gradually diluted, while its tragic meaning was gradually strengthened. In other words, in this transformation process, the protagonist of the coup finally changed from Yang to Yang Guifei.
Third, how should we evaluate Yang Guifei? Traditional historians mention Yang Guifei, and mainstream evaluation is of course a disaster for women. It is believed that Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty changed from Ming Dynasty to coma under her temptation, and even blamed her for the Anshi Rebellion. In modern times, many people complained to Yang Guifei that Yang Guifei was basically not involved in politics, and Yang's rise had little to do with her, and the Anshi Rebellion had nothing to do with her. She is an innocent victim and scapegoat. So, what should we think of her? I think, first of all, we should know whether Yang Guifei is the chief culprit of Xuanzong's political situation from prosperity to decline. Of course not. Because in any case, after all, she was not the political protagonist at that time and had no right to make any decisions. As we all know, responsibility and power are linked. Since she has no power, how can she be held accountable? Secondly, we should also know that Yang Guifei is not a femme fatale, but she is by no means a virtuous princess. You know, the empresses in ancient China were not ordinary wives, but a kind of political identity. People's requirements for empresses are not that they have to participate in politics, but that they should participate in politics in a reasonable way. What does it mean to participate in politics in a reasonable form? According to what we say now, to be a good wife, we should always persuade the emperor to do good things and not do bad things. For example. Everyone knows Ban Jieyu in the Han Dynasty. At that time, Emperor Han Cheng was very fond of her and wanted to take her with him, but Ban Jieyu resolutely refused. She said: As far as I know, every promising emperor always needs a good minister to accompany him. Only a bad king like Jie Jie takes women in and out all day. If I ride with your majesty, it won't hurt your reputation! This is an example of a virtuous queen and a virtuous princess. Where's Yang Guifei? Although she seldom went into politics, according to the existing historical data, she never advised the emperor to be diligent. Isn't this her dereliction of duty? In fact, Yang's arrogance is largely related to her connivance. From this point of view, it is wrong for traditional historiography to mention that women are beautiful women, but it is probably biased to emphasize Yang Guifei's innocence now. Finally, I want to say that Yang Guifei is a tragic figure. Yang Guifei has no intention of going into politics. She doesn't have the political talent like the eldest grandson queen, nor does she have the political desire like Wu Zetian. She is just a simple woman who likes singing and dancing and enjoys life. If she had lived with Shouwang all the time, she could have lived an ordinary and happy life. However, the reality is that it is always difficult for her to grasp her own destiny. Whether she eventually became the imperial concubine of Xuanzong or died suddenly was not her own choice. She is not a political figure, but in the end she was involved in the whirlpool of politics and swallowed up by the undercurrent. The so-called beautiful, I'm afraid more is the tragedy of the times, the tragedy of culture.
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