Japanese Culture Japanese Language Essay

Language is a cultural phenomenon, and the cultures of different nations are reflected in the languages of different nations, and it is difficult to really learn a foreign language well without the cultural background on which the language depends. The following is a sample of my Japanese essay on Japanese culture for you, welcome to read it!

Japanese Culture Japanese Language Essay 1

On Japanese Culture from Japanese Construction and Japanese Use

Abstract: ? The habit of human thinking? is the sum of a cognitive habit possessed by people who speak the same language***, it is the basic of the unconscious habitual patterns of thinking and behavior that people have every day, and these collectively become culture. In short, the meaning of words spoken with a certain grammatical construction is produced in the vein of the culture with the cognitive habits of the speaker in mind. In this, again, it is linked to culture as a vein. A very important clue to figuring out people's habits of thinking, which are essential elements of culture, is language.

Keywords: speech culturology; speech consciousness; speech performance; Japanese culture

Naruichi Makino has said that speech culturology is neither explaining speech by culture nor explaining culture by speech. Assuming that it can be shown that a certain speech phenomenon and a cultural phenomenon have some kind of inevitable connection, then it is necessary to prove the organicity and kinship between speech and culture by explicitly proposing when exactly it is. In short, the so-called linguistics of culture is a discipline that aims to scientifically describe the characteristics of speech and culture, which have been established as social customs, through the universal media that are related to both. In this paper, we are going to analyze the Japanese language and culture from the point of view of Japanese language and culture, and find out how the Japanese language and culture are connected.

I. Culture in Japanese Language Construction

(1) Vocabulary and Japanese Culture

Vocabulary, as the sum of words, can be said to reflect to a considerable extent the natural environment in which the user lives, the society and culture in which he or she lives, and the way of thinking of those who live in it.

1. Intermingling of Japanese traditional and foreign cultures reflected in vocabulary

Japanese vocabulary reflects a culture that is a mixture of elements that are inherent in Japan and those that are foreign. For example: Japanese? Chinese? foreign languages are mixed together. For example, if we limit ourselves to clothing, food and housing, for clothing, there are "着物"「ゆかた」「帯」「寝巻」and "シャツ」「パンツ」「パジャマ」etc, for food, there are "rice" 「juice」「豆腐」「すき焼き」「酒」and "スープ」チーズ」キャンディー "etc, for housing, there are "玄関」「ふすま」「oHan縁侧」and "ドア」「ベランダ」etc. All of them contain three languages, and the competition between these three languages is a reflection of the intertwined posture of traditional and foreign cultures in Japan. It is this dual construction that characterizes Japanese culture.

2. A special group - onomatopoeia (onomatopoeia? onomatopoeia)

Prof. Haruhiko Kindaichi believes that the existence of onomatopoeia, which is a blank part in the vocabulary system of many languages, is a unique feature of Japanese vocabulary. It is said that there are many onomatopoeic and mimetic words in Japanese, and although it cannot be said that this is a unique feature of the Japanese language, the multiplicity of such words is an example of sensory, non-analytical perception of things. For example: イライラ? ムシャクシャ? ヤキモキ? etc. It's hard to understand for foreigners, isn't it? ホットする? Horepare and Shita? Skillful? (chest) moyamoya? What's your name? Gakaridan? etc. They are often used frequently and frequently, as they always have a very detailed description of the emotional state, and sometimes they are very rich in describing the state of a very intense action. ショゲル? フサギコム? Mukulele? Mukatsuk? Jirel? Iradates? Wabi-sabi? For the Japanese, who have such a fine-grained sense of constant emotional sway, it would be a shame if they were to live in a world of meaning, where there are no words for feelings. If they were to live in a world of meaning? they would feel very miserable.

(2) Culture in Grammar

1. Order

Japanese is a so-called SOV (subject + object + verb) order. That is, not only the information of the sentence, but the basic meaning construction of the sentence cannot be understood until the end of the sentence. For example:

Her daughter is a Japanese language teacher.

The girl is a Japanese language teacher.

She is a Japanese teacher.

She is a Japanese teacher.

Whether a sentence is narrative, negative, or interrogative is not known until the end of the sentence. It can be said that there is suspense all the way to the end of the sentence. If you think of the information in the sentence as internal, in a language with an inflectional order like Japanese, the process of getting to the interior is less abrupt and more gentle. From the listener's point of view, the whole sentence cannot be grasped from the beginning of the sentence, but rather from the outside slowly reaching the inside.

2. Choice of using automatisms and other verbs

(1) Not using ? other-verb sentences? and choose to use ? automatic word sentences?

お茶が入りましたよ。 (Automatic sentence)

お茶を入れましたよ。 (Other verbs)

This is the scene after the speaker has poured tea for the other person. At this time, instead of using the other verb sentence "お茶を入れましたよ", you will use more of the automatic verb sentence "お茶が入っていますよ.". By saying "お茶をれましたよ Tea has been poured? which shows the result, to erase the subject ? I? This is a kind of sentence that does not involve the fact that it is ? I have poured the tea? It is an expression that does not involve the fact that I poured the tea. If you use the verb, it becomes a sentence containing the phrase ? I made the tea for you? This kind of statement, in which one's own behavior brings favor to the other person, can be unpleasant for the other person.

(2) Replacing the use of? automatic words and phrases? and choose to use? other verbs?

部屋を散らかしていて、すみません。 (Other verb)

部屋が散らかっていて、すみません。 (Automatic verb sentence)

Both the former and the latter are often used. The former other-verb sentence is stating that it is you who made the room a mess, and there is an expression of apologizing for giving the other person a bad time. The latter's autoerotic sentences simply state that ? The room is a mess? It is more ambiguous as to whose responsibility it is. In this case, the mood of apologizing is a little stronger with the other verb sentence than with the auto-word sentence, and it will give a better impression to the other party.

There is a tendency to use automatic or other verbs as follows:

In cases where you (the owner of the action) directly or indirectly affect the other person negatively, if you use automatic verbs, you are likely to attract?

When you (the action owner) intentionally take actions to bring positive effects to the other party, if you use other verbs, you may give the other party a feeling of "imposing goodwill". Imposition of good intentions? Self-assertion? and so on, so it is preferable to use automatisms rather than other-verb clauses.

II. Culture in the use of Japanese? Speech

Awareness and Speech Acts (I) Stereotyped Greetings - the Lubricant of Interpersonal Relations

Greetings are polite actions or words exchanged between people when they meet or when they separate. By saying these words, they show respect or closeness to each other and make interpersonal relationships and social life smooth.

When it comes to pleasantries, they include: ① When people meet each other, ? おはようございます? When you are meeting someone, you can say, "I'd like to meet you," or "I'd like to meet you. When you want to say welcome, you can say "いらっしゃいませ", and so on. etc.; ③When parting, "Sayoなら", "Oyasumiなさい", etc.; ④When going home, "Tadaima". When you go home, "ただいま? お帰りなさい? ⑤When going out, "いってきさい" (いってきさい). いってきます」? いってらっしゃい? etc.; ⑥When eating, いただきます？ いただきます? Goshosho-sama? etc.

It is a very common custom in Japanese to say such fixed pleasantries. ? いただきます? いださいまして有難うございます？ Fixed pleasantries such as these are widely used in Japanese society. In many other languages, this kind of fixed sentence is a blank part. However, for Japanese people, depending on whether they use pleasantries or not, and what kind of pleasantries they use, it can show a big difference in their relationship with people. There may be cases where the lack of pleasantries leads to disharmony in a relationship, or on the contrary, there may be cases where a single pleasant word lights up the heart of the other person. In short, pleasantries are used as a lubricant for human relationships, and without them, it would be a difficult world to live in.

(2) The psychology that governs the behavior of honorifics

Anyone knows that honorifics are very well developed in Japanese. Respect for people can be found in any country, but the development of it into a complete system throughout the grammar and vocabulary cannot be said to be a feature of the Japanese language. In Japanese, in addition to social status, such as identity, position, etc., the difference between the society to which one belongs, age, gender, etc., in occupation and related business, and so on, are the elements that define the language of the person in question. In addition, when this difference creates a discrepancy between the two parties, it is necessary to choose words that can equalize the relationship.

The general rule of honorifics is that they are used according to the relationship between the other person or the thing that appears in the conversation and the person himself/herself (up or down, close or distant?). Closeness? interest), using words and phrases that are appropriate. Of course, it will also take into account? Treatment? or? character words. There are many conditions that govern Japanese speech and behavior, but the most important one is "respect". respect. expression and the subtle awareness of people's? The most important are the expression of respect and the subtle control of people's awareness of their mental distance. and the subtle way in which people's awareness of the "heart distance" is determined. In short, it is about whether or not to include the other person and the target person as one's own. one's own person? range, according to the distance between this and their own heart to decide what words to use.

Conclusion

The Japanese language and the consciousness of the Japanese people have influenced each other and become one, forming a spiritual space on the Japanese islands. It can be called ? the spiritual space of the nation? At the same time, it can also be called the "speech space of the nation". the verbal space of the nation. Japanese portraits. It's also good to have a Japanese character, but it's also good to have a Japanese character. The Japanese language can be reflected in this. can be reflected in this. This paper analyzes the Japanese language and culture from the viewpoint of Japanese language construction and Japanese language use. Japanese like? and? Japanese like? It can be said that through some vocabulary, grammar and several aspects of speech expression, it is possible to clarify to a certain extent how the Japanese language is related to the cognitive habits of Japanese people and Japanese culture. Of course, the connection between Japanese language and Japanese culture is not only in the above two aspects, but also in many more. For example, the Japanese language reflects what the Japanese people are good at and what they are not so good at; it reflects the Japanese people who like to think in automatisms, who use a lot of verbs, who use passive voice, who are silent, who omit personal pronouns, who show ambiguity, who reject politely, etc. These are all topics to be discussed in the future. All these are discussed as future topics.

References

[1] Hideo Satake, Reimi Nishio. "Textbook of honorifics[M]. Veil, 2005.

[2]Tabua, Yukinori. "A textbook of honorifics [M]. Kuroshio Publishing, 1997.

[3]Peng Fei. "A study on the performance of the Japanese language [M]. Wazumi Shoin, 2004.

[4] Peng Fei. "A study on Japanese people's speech habits with control over foreigners [M]. Wazumi Shoin, 1990.

[5] Makino Naruichi. "The study of language and culture in Wuchi and Soto" [M]. Arc, 1996.

[6] Nobuko Mizutani. "Japanese Language Lectures [M]. Research Corporation, 1999.

[7] Morita Ryoyuki. "Japanese Language Perspectives [M]. Sentosha, 1995.

[8]Moriyama Joro. "Japanese in Comics[M]. Iwanami Shoten, 2004.

[9]Yoshikazu. "The Japanese Rashisai Structure" [M]. Oshukan Shoten, 2004.

[10]Watanabe実. "An Introduction to the Japanese Language [M]. Iwanami Shoten, 1996.

Japanese Culture Japanese Essay 2

An Analysis of the Influence of Japanese Culture on Japanese Idioms

Abstract: Idioms are the products of the development of the national language, carrying rich cultural information, and are the essence of the language vocabulary. It is like a mirror that clearly reflects the cultural characteristics of a nation. National culture will leave a deep imprint in the language, prompting the formation of idioms. This paper discusses the significance of Japanese culture on the emergence, development and formation of Japanese idioms from three aspects: natural environment, customs and habits, and religious beliefs.

Keywords: Japanese culture, Japanese idioms, significance

? Language is the carrier of culture, the accumulation of culture, and the reflection of culture? [1]. There is a rich cultural connotation in language. The emergence, change and development of any language are closely related to the natural geographical environment, social culture and local customs of its nation and country. As Mr. Yoshiyuki Morita, a Japanese linguist, said: ? Words and leaves are born out of the culture of the society, and the cultural point of view is away from the words and leaves to be examined, or the words and leaves of the original language are born to be viewed.? [2] (Language is a product of society and culture, and you cannot see the real language if you leave the cultural point of view to consider the language) Idioms, as one of the most cultural parts of language and culture, are more than ever the embodiment of the essence of national culture. It is like a mirror that clearly reflects the cultural characteristics of a nation.

National culture is bound to leave a deep imprint in the language, prompting the formation of idioms. Learning and mastering idioms not only improves linguistic expression but also enhances cultural competence, and the enhancement of cultural competence will certainly help improve linguistic competence. Japanese culture is complex and has absorbed the essence of many cultures and has a large number of idioms. This paper briefly describes the influence of Japanese culture on the formation and development of Japanese idioms from the aspects of natural environment, customs and religious beliefs, so as to draw people's attention to the relationship between idioms and culture, so that they can learn and understand Japanese idioms better and express the meaning of idioms accurately in their language practice, and avoid making ridiculous mistakes due to the lack of understanding of the cultural background of Japanese idioms. The authoritative Japanese dictionary "Kokugo Dictionary" explains idioms in this way: ? Ancient people が作って、昔からら屡々用いられて來た语句、合成語、熟语など二語以上が缠まってきた言叶. (words and phrases that have been used from ancient times to the present day, composite language, familiar language, etc. consisting of more than two words) It can be seen that Japanese idioms include two-character four-character phrases, proverbs, customary phrases, aphorisms, hiatus, etc. in Chinese.

I. Natural environment

? The natural environment, as the living space of human beings, will certainly be inextricably linked to the cultural characteristics of that nation? [3]. Japanese people have been living in an island country surrounded by the sea since ancient times, which is rich in various kinds of fresh fish, thus forming a unique ? fish culture? From the most common and inexpensive "snapper" to the rarest and most expensive "seabream", all of them appear in a large number of idioms. 「鰯の头も信心から」(精诚所至);「鲷の尾より鰯の头」(宁为鸡头，不为凤尾);「鲭を読む」(故弄玄虚);「鳗登り」(扶摇直上);「鲍の具の片思い」(一厢情愿);「虾で鲷を钓る」(抛砖引玉);「山芋が鳗となる」(鸡窝里飞不出金凤凰);「鲈庖丁」(尔虞我诈);「鼈 ga 時を作る" (whimsical) and so on. It is precisely because of the fish? is the mainstay of the Japanese diet, the types of fish in Japanese idioms are divided in detail, and the characteristics of each type of fish are portrayed in the best possible way. Since Japan is rich in seafood and fresh seafood is available all year round, the Japanese people are not as eager and particular about food seasoning as mainlanders. For a long time in Japan, only "salt" and "miso" were used as seasonings. "Salt is extracted from seawater, so it tastes the same in every household. However, miso, which is made from soybeans, tastes different from person to person. If your own miso tastes better than anyone else's, you are proud of it. Hence the Japanese idioms "出前味噌" and "味噌が上がる"(自吹自吹); "味噌を擂る"(flattering). But if the ratio of the recipe is wrong, the "miso" will be a failure, so "味噌を付ける" means ? Shame on you? means "to be embarrassed". In addition, "Miso もくそも一緒にする"(not distinguishing the good from the bad); "Miso が腐る"(referring to the voice is too bad), and so on.

The Japanese archipelago, with its many mountains and little land, is a particularly harsh natural environment, and rice is grown for a living. Irrigation is an important requirement for rice cultivation, so there are often disputes over the source of water in each household, which is referred to in the idiom "水挂け論"(controversy). The Japanese people eat rice as their staple food, and the related idioms are: Other people's rice is white (family flowers are not as fragrant as wildflowers); Flower Yori Danzi (give up splendor and seek truth); Chao Ieong-yeon (one step at a time); Leng ya rice wo eat う (sit on a cold bench); Cake wa cake yak-yak-ya (no matter what one does, one must still rely on a connoisseur); Together with the kettle of rice wo eat う (intimate), and so on.

Japan is frequently hit by typhoons, earthquakes, tsunamis and other natural disasters. The ancient Japanese people were very fearful and reverent of all natural phenomena, and they believed that everything in the world had a soul and was the incarnation of God. They believed that everything in the world had a soul and was the incarnation of a god. The Japanese believed in "kami," "reishi," and "oni," and thought that "oni" were the deformations of "gods" that had been sent from the sky, from the sea, and from the mountains to the earth, and that they were powerful, ruthless, and very scary. As a result of this, there are the phrases "鬼に金棒" (like a tiger with wings), "鬼の空念仏" (false sentiment), "鬼の井沼に洗濯" (there is no tiger in the mountain and the monkey is the king), "心の鬼にする" (to put one's heart on the line), and "鬼を酢にして食う" (to eat a ghost with a smile on one's face), and so on. In the face of the powerful gods and nature, people must pray to the gods for protection in order to survive. Shrines of various sizes are found throughout Japan, where different gods and goddesses are enshrined, and every year various festivals are held, which are called "matsuri" in Japanese.

Since ancient times, the Japanese people have lived and prospered on the Japanese islands, and the island culture is the source of Japanese idioms.

Second, customs and habits

? Customs and habits are gradually formed by a nation in a specific process of historical development and geographic environment, is a symbol of cultural forms, involving all areas of social life? [4]. As a cultural carrier of the language is bound to reflect the customs of the nation, and the formation of idioms with their own national characteristics.

Since ancient times, the Japanese people have believed in the "spirit of speech", which is an incredible spiritual power. It is believed that words have an uncanny ability to bring good fortune and misfortune. If you say what you want to say, the spirit of the word will not work. The Japanese people are very careful with their language, advocating "言葉多きは悪し"; "沈黙は最大雄弁なり"(silence is the best form of eloquence); "口は祸の門"(trouble comes out of the mouth); and "言わぬが花"("speechぬが花") (it's better not to say anything). Most of the idioms formed by the verb "言う" have a derogatory meaning: "言い落とす" (to speak out of one's mouth); "言いふらす" (to spread rumors); "言いまくる" (to speak out of one's mouth) and so on, which fully reflect the Japanese people's negative perception of speech.

"Flower Ceremony" and "Tea Ceremony" occupy a very important position in the life of the Japanese people, and they are world-famous arts of a very high level. The idiom of "three years of arranging straw flowers" refers to the fact that learning flower arranging starts with the most common practice of arranging straw flowers, but it takes at least three years of hard work to arrange them well, and it emphasizes the importance of practicing the basics. The ritual of the "tea ceremony" is very difficult, but the ordinary "ochazuke" eaten in the morning is the simplest thing anyone can do, thus giving rise to the idiom "ochazuke sai sai sai" (it's easy). The idiom "お茶を浊す" (お茶を浊す) refers to making tea in a sloppy, sloppy manner. Other idioms based on tea include "茶にする"(爱理不理); "灭茶苦茶"(messy); and "番茶も出花"(旧貌换新颜), etc. The colorful life of the Japanese people is one of the main reasons why they are so rich and diverse. The rich and colorful life of the Japanese people is the fertile soil for the survival of Japanese idioms.　Human beings live on the earth with plants and animals*** and live with each other day and night.

Some of the characteristics of plants and animals in the expression of human thoughts and feelings on the unexpected effect, the Japanese language has a lot of plants and animals to set the metaphor of idioms. Cherry blossoms are the national flower of Japan and have been loved by the Japanese people since ancient times. Cherry blossom has a very short flowering period, but it blooms and falls in unison, colorful and sensational. Groupism beauty? and its noble style before fading are the noble qualities that the Japanese people have been pursuing all their lives. There are many idioms in Japanese that praise the cherry blossoms as a theme: "桜は花に現れる"(talented); "桜は七日"(doing a magnificent job even in a short life); "三日见ぬ間の桜"(the world is unpredictable),etc.。 The two most important festivals in Japan are the Dragon Boat Festival on May 5, when "irises" must be placed, and the Chrysanthemum Festival on September 9, when "chrysanthemums" must be decorated. However, on the second day of the festival, the six days of irises and the ten days of chrysanthemums are useless. The idioms "六日の菖蒲" and "十日の菊" mean that the opportunity is missed and has no value, similar to the Chinese phrase "雨后送伞?" (to send an umbrella after the rain). The idiom "六日の菖蒲" and "十日の菊" means to miss a good opportunity and have no value.

"Kappa" is a fictional animal in Japanese mythology that is good at swimming and can also live on land, and is very popular among Japanese people. The "pelican" is a fish-eater that swallows fish whole in one gulp. The idiom of this phenomenon, "鹈呑みにする" is used to describe a person who does not know what he is talking about or who has been deceived. "Kame" is a favorite animal of the Japanese people, who believe that "kame no kame yori nen no ko" (ginger is old and hot) and hope that "kame wa mannen" (turtle-like longevity). Japanese people believe that there are "worms" inhabiting their bodies, and no one knows what these "worms" look like or where they are hidden in their bodies. Normally, these "worms" lurk somewhere in their bodies and don't move, so people don't have any feelings about it, but when there is a time, they will act and make it difficult to deal with them. These bugs manipulate and direct the thoughts and behaviors of every Japanese person, which has led to the creation of a number of idioms that use "bugs" as a metaphor. The idioms "虫の居所が悪い" (心心不快), "腹の虫が纳まらぬ" (腹の虫が納まらぬ), "虫すが走る"(令人恶心), "虫の知らせ" (虫の知らせ) (先前预識), "泣き虫"(哭愛哭人), and "弱虫"(膽膽鬼) are all examples of idioms using the word "bug" to describe the behavior of a Japanese person. And "虫がいい" means that the worms in the body are smugly manipulating people's behavior, regardless of others' feelings, meaning the same as the Chinese word "selfishness". Selfishness. In addition, there are many other idioms in Japanese that use common animals in daily life, such as cats, dogs, cows, and horses as metaphors, so I won't list them all here. In short, plants and animals are an inexhaustible source of Japanese idioms. For these idioms with special national cultural imprints, it is necessary to learn and use them on the basis of understanding the connotation of national culture in order to avoid misunderstanding, mistranslation and misrepresentation.

Third, religious beliefs

Religious beliefs, as a kind of social ideology, will give people's thinking a penetrating and persistent power. Ideological and cultural penetration is accompanied by linguistic penetration, and different religious beliefs form different cultural characteristics and reproduce different cultural traditions.

The religious beliefs of the Japanese nation are more complex and have gone through many periods. Chinese? Taoism? was first introduced to Japan, the Japanese idiom "Rokujin主なし"(六神無主), "Rokujin" refers to the Taoist ? The six gods of the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, spleen, and organs. the gods of the six organs. With the introduction of Chinese characters into Japan, the ancient Chinese practice of? Cultivating oneself and governing others Confucianism, which was advocated in ancient China, was also introduced to Japan. Confucianism emphasizes the principles of "benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith". The principles of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith became the principles of the Japanese people and had a profound influence on Japanese culture, resulting in many idioms containing Confucian ideas, such as: "Confucius の倒れ"(人无完人); "犬に論语"(对牛弹琴論语); and "男は松女は藤"(男尊女卑). After Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the sixth century A.D., it changed the Japanese people's outlook on life to a great extent and became the spiritual pillar of the Japanese nation. In Buddhism the world of good and evil is divided into ? The realm of desire? The world of desire, the world of lust, and the world of color. the world of color and the colorless world. Colorless realm. The highest of the three realms, the colorless realm, is called? Apex Heaven? The Japanese idiom "有顶天になる" (to get carried away, to forget oneself) was born out of the joy of reaching this highest level. Monks begged barefoot every day, and when they returned to the temple in the evening, they had to wash their feet before preaching to their followers, hence the idiom "足を洗う", which means "to wash one's hands". Other idioms related to Buddhism include "仏顶面", "仏の颜も三度", "仏の颜も三度", "お释迦に経を聞かせる", and "有為轉変は世の习い世", "有為轉変は世の习い世", "有為轉変は世の习い世", "世事无常", etc. These idioms have strong religious connotations. These Japanese idioms, which have a strong religious flavor, have penetrated into the lives of Japanese people. Religious beliefs provide Japanese idioms with sufficient nourishment.

In summary, Japanese idioms are colorful, full of wisdom and creativity, and are the richest linguistic unit of Japanese culture, and the embodiment of the essence and core of Japanese culture, which is highly used in writing and communication. We must pay attention to the study and mastery of Japanese idioms, only in this way can we deepen our understanding of Japanese culture and continuously improve our Japanese language skills.

References:

[1] Su Jinzhi. Language? Society? Culture [M]. Beijing: Beijing Language Press, 1994.

[2]Sun Man-su. Japanese language and culture [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007.

[3]Gu Jiazu. Cross-cultural communication [M]. Nanjing: Nanjing Normal University Press, 2002.

[4]Wang Xiuwen. Japanese language, culture and communication [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing House, 2007.

[5] Shangxue 図書辞书编集部. Story? The great dictionary of popular letters kotowazza [M]. Japan: Shogakukan, 1982.

[6] Koo, Hokken, and Liu, Honglun. Chinese-Japanese idioms and proverbs [M]. Changchun: Jilin People's Publishing House, 1981.