The reason why there is no developed commodity economy in China history+paper

First, the development clues and basic models of commodity economy

This can be roughly divided into two systems, one is the theory of "monetary economy (commodity economy)-natural economy" ups and downs, and the other is the theory of "natural economy → commodity economy" rising gradually or developing in waves. In addition, overseas scholars claim that China has formed a market economy based on private property rights since the Warring States, Qin and Han Dynasties, and its future development will be carried out within the framework of the market economy. Because there are not many believers in China, and no one has systematically discussed this view, I will not comment here.

(A) "Monetary commodity economy-natural economy" ups and downs theory

Zhao Lisheng once pointed out that China's economic history has experienced three changes from ancient natural economy to classical economy in Qin and Han dynasties, and then to modern landlord economy, which is very representative. Generally speaking, scholars who advocate feudalism in Wei and Jin Dynasties estimate the development degree of commodity economy in Warring States, Qin and Han Dynasties, and regard it as an opportunity for China to change from underdeveloped slavery to developed slavery, and at the same time, they link the formation of feudal system in Wei and Jin Dynasties with the natural economy in the Middle Ages.

Gong Ze, a Japanese scholar, divided the way of understanding natural economy and monetary economy into four theories. The first theory is the theory of "monetary economy → natural economy → monetary economy" represented by Han Sheng. Quan believed that the Han Dynasty was the era of monetary economy, and the Middle Ages from the end of Han Dynasty to the middle Tang Dynasty was the era in which natural economy dominated. Around the Anshi Rebellion, a monetary economy centered on coins began. He Ziquan revised all his views on the situation in the Southern Dynasties and opposed taking the Southern Dynasties as a natural economic era. It is considered that the northern part of China is a monetary economy-natural economy-monetary economy, while the monetary economy in the south has been developing. This is the second theory. Wu Xianqing thinks that cloth and silk are also money, disagrees that Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties are retrogression to natural economy, and thinks that monetary economy has been developing since Qin and Han Dynasties. Peng Xinwei's view is similar. This is the third theory. The fourth theory, such as Mao Ye's Summary of China's Commodity Economy and Traditional Market Theory in the Early Feudal Landlord System, holds that the whole pre-modern China was dominated by natural economy. He also pointed out that although Quan's view is a minority in China today, it is the mainstream view in Japan, and the representative figures are Xun and Miyazaki Hayao in Konoha. The whole concept of natural economy and monetary economy comes from German historian Skillbrant. Although he totally criticized the absolute evolution of natural economy → monetary economy → credit economy, and adopted the development model of monetary economy → natural economy → monetary economy proposed by Pinheiro and others, the concepts he used were basically based on Schibrant. Skil Brandt's concepts of natural economy and monetary economy are distinguished strictly according to whether the means of exchange is physical or metal currency, and the physical exchange other than metal currency is classified into the category of natural economy. He did not imagine that there was no exchange (distribution) economy, and his natural economy did not contain the meaning of "self-sufficiency", which was different from Marx's concept. Marx's distinction between natural economy and monetary economy is not based on monetary form or exchange means, but pays more attention to production purposes; Natural economy refers to a simple commodity economy or an economy that does not exchange in order to obtain use value. [20]

Gong Ze's statement is well-founded. However, some scholars who advocated feudalism in Wei and Jin Dynasties in China followed the development model of monetary economy → natural economy → monetary economy, but they revised it according to Marx's theory. For example, Zhao Dexin divided the development of the relationship between ancient natural economy and commodity currency in China into: primitive social natural economy → "ancient (slavery) monetary economy" → medieval natural economy. He pointed out that the whole and essence of the social and economic structure in the period of "ancient (slavery) monetary economy" was still strictly a natural economy, so it could be called "ancient natural economy". [ 13]

Tian Changwu opposed that the feudal society in China was dominated by the self-sufficient natural economy from beginning to end, and thought it was a model based on the "long-term stagnation theory". The commodity economy in China feudal society developed periodically, and so did the corresponding natural economy: the Warring States period to the Western Han Dynasty was the first peak of commodity economy, and the Eastern Han Dynasty turned from prosperity to decline, and the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties were basically natural economic times; The Tang and Song Dynasties were the second peak of commodity economy, and the northern part of China controlled by Liao, Xia and Jin Dynasties turned from prosperity to decline, especially in the Yellow River basin and northwest China, where cities were dry and rural areas almost returned to the state of natural economy. During the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, the commodity economy showed a comprehensive recovery trend. [2]

(B) "natural economy → commodity economy" gradually rising or wave-like development theory

As Miyazawa pointed out, the view that the whole pre-modern China was basically based on the natural economy and gradually developed from the natural economy to the commodity economy was basically based on the Marxist position and the problem consciousness of how capitalism grew up in feudal society. However, China's commerce began to develop in the early civilization (at the latest in the Warring States period), especially after the Song Dynasty. Applying the theory of self-sufficient manor economy formed under the feudal lords system in the Middle Ages in the West to China, especially in the Song and Qing Dynasties, will encounter many difficulties. [20] Therefore, in the 1980s, China's economic historians had a heated discussion on what is natural economy and commodity economy, trying to reinterpret the nature of China's natural economy, commodity economy and feudal social economy. Lin Ganquan has commented on this issue in recent years. He commented on the representative views. Based on the historical reality at home and abroad, he thinks that the essential feature of natural economy should be self-sufficient production, not so-called "self-sufficiency". Do not exclude certain connections with the market, and take this as their own supplement. The characteristics of feudal natural economy in China are reflected in the combination of agriculture and cottage industry. The combination of natural economy and commodity economy, in which natural economy is dominant, is an important feature of China's feudal economic structure. [10] For this discussion, please refer to the introduction in the appendix of this article.

Many scholars advocate the gradual upsurge or wave-like development of natural economy → commodity economy (market economy). It is generally believed that the development of commodity economy in the history of China experienced three climaxes: Warring States, Qin and Han Dynasties, Tang and Song Dynasties and Ming and Qing Dynasties. For example, Li Duan thinks that natural economy and commodity economy have coexisted for a long time, restricted each other and changed each other. The general trend is that the natural economy is gradually weakening and the commodity economy is gradually expanding. According to this view, China's commodity economy, which achieved unprecedented development during the Warring States, Qin and Han Dynasties, was suppressed after Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty, but it developed faster after the awakening of Tang and Song Dynasties than during the Qin and Han Dynasties. For example, the main commodities in Qin and Han dynasties were salt, iron and wine, and the main markets in the Central Plains were only connected with foreign markets in the northwest. Tea and ceramics were added in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and the quality and quantity of silk were greatly improved. They are exported abroad, and sea routes are added to foreign trade. Long's development history of China traditional market also belongs to the wave development theory. It describes the origin and initial prosperity of China traditional market in the pre-Qin, Qin and Han dynasties, the tortuous development in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the revival in the Five Dynasties, the maturity in the Song, Jin and Yuan Dynasties and the Ming and Qing Dynasties in chronological order. [3]

If the main controversy of the former viewpoint is the analysis of the nature of several "turning points", then the main controversy of the latter viewpoint is the development degree of commodity economy in the late feudal society, especially in the Ming and Qing Dynasties and the economic nature of that period. Most scholars argue that although the commodity economy in Ming and Qing dynasties has made great progress, the natural economy still dominates as a whole. However, some scholars believe that due to the development of commodity economy, the economy of Ming and Qing dynasties has been separated from the category of natural economy. For example, we introduced the views of Li Wenzhi and Hong Xue. In recent years, Xu proposed that China has a stage of "small commodity economy" between natural economy and commodity economy. It is characterized by the production of small commodities and their corresponding distribution, exchange and consumption. The emergence of professional producers of small commodities is based on people's relative freedom. Small commodity production developed in Song Dynasty, but the prosperity of national small commodity economy did not appear until after the middle of Ming Dynasty. The lack of food in large-scale economically developed areas marks the formation of an economic region dominated by small commodity production. [16] Gong Ze also believes that from the perspective of rural market development, the transition period of the Tang and Song Dynasties and the late Ming and early Qing dynasties are noteworthy. In the former, although the rural market is developing and commodity production has appeared, the self-sufficient economy is dominant in general. The latter appeared in advanced areas with the goal of obtaining surplus value, and gradually formed a modern small commodity economy, that is, the commodity economy changed from a stage without value law to a stage that basically followed the law of value. [20] This represents the views of a considerable number of Japanese scholars.

The above theory is mainly based on the evolution process of small-scale peasant economy from self-sufficiency economy to small commodity economy.

Second, about the market economy or the germination of market economy in China feudal society.

(1) What is a market economy? When did the market economy appear in the history of China?

Since the central government put forward the strategic policy of building a socialist market economy, many scholars have been thinking about whether there is a market economy in the history of China. If so, when did it appear? This is related to the understanding of what a market economy is. There are two different understandings of this issue in academic circles: some scholars and some market economies are related to modernization, but in feudal times, market economies can only sprout in their later stages; Another scholar believes that there is no necessary connection between market economy and modernization or capitalism, and there can be a specific market economy in feudal times.

The first viewpoint is represented by Wu, who has repeatedly expounded the germination of market economy in China feudal society and related theoretical issues. He pointed out that the process of transforming traditional economy into market economy is actually the process of economic modernization or modernization. It is not only an unprecedented expansion of market volume, but also a fundamental change in the connotation of market transactions and the principle of market mechanism, all of which are based on the corresponding changes in political, legal and economic systems and institutions. He advocated the transition to a market economy as a symbol of economic modernization. China has developed commodity exchange in history, but this is not a market economy. China's transition to a market economy also began in the16th century, that is, between Jiajing and Wanli in the Ming Dynasty. The appearance of big business gangs, workshops and handicrafts and the "enlightenment trend of thought" in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties is its symbol. But the strength is insufficient, and more importantly, it has not caused "political infiltration" as Hicks said. Property rights, commercial law and tax system have not changed, and it is still an out-and-out feudal autocratic country. This situation basically continued to the Qing Dynasty. In the 20th century, China had a modern industry, and the port city developed vigorously, which was in line with international standards. But before War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, China had not yet transformed into a market economy: (1) agriculture, which accounts for the largest proportion of the national economy, is still a traditional small-scale peasant economic system with low commodity rate. Emerging industries are concentrated in the textile and food industries and have not yet formed a departmental system. The structural rigidity of this dual economy and the resulting low elasticity of supply and demand fundamentally limit the role of the market in resource allocation. (2) The modern market is defined as "one price". If the difference between the two places is equal to the freight, it is a market. China in the 1930s was far from this level. (3) Market modernization is a change from personality transaction to impersonal transaction, which requires a series of written and unwritten laws to clarify property rights, neutral rules, standardize behaviors and execute penalties. The market economy must be a legal economy, which did not exist at that time. China's conscious transition to a market economy was still in the Deng Xiaoping era. [6]

Recently, Xu Tan also talked about the transformation of China's economy into a market economy in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which showed that the government's direct intervention in the economy was gradually weakened and the role of market mechanism in economic development was constantly strengthened. In her view, in the mid-Qing Dynasty, a nationwide urban and rural market network system with wide coverage and free operation was formed, and the formation and development of this urban and rural market network system was an important part of China's modernization process. [5]

Different from this view that the germination or transformation of market economy is linked with modernization, some scholars believe that market economy already exists in feudal society. Yin Jin, for example, thinks that China has a feudal market economy since the Song Dynasty, and then a market economy with budding capitalism in the Ming Dynasty. [1] Guo also put forward the concept of "feudal market economy". [17] According to Rob Dale, Zheng advocated distinguishing the two concepts of market economy and capitalism. The main function or the most important standard of market economy is to regulate production and allocate resources through market mechanism, which is the main means of allocating resources. Under the condition of market economy, the social division of labor is relatively developed, exchange becomes the lever and gear of economic development, the monetary and financial system is established and integrated with production exchange, and people's economic life cannot be separated from the fluctuation of market supply and demand. Capitalism refers to a political and economic system with capital accumulation, proliferation, mobility and monopoly as its highest interests. He believes that China's market economy sprouted before the16th century, such as the Song Dynasty. Some areas can be called the market economy sprouting, on the grounds that some industries have a fine division of labor and the exchange is social, but on the other hand, the whole society in the Song Dynasty is still in a natural economic environment; In the mid-Ming Dynasty, that is, from the 6th century, a market economy appeared in Jiangnan and coastal areas along the Yangtze River. He further divided the market history of China into two periods. The first period is the traditional market, which can be divided into the early stage and the late stage with the mid-Tang Dynasty as the boundary. The second period is market economy, which can be divided into embryonic stage (12- 13,16-18th century), primary stage (1840- 1949) and stagnant development stage (. In the embryonic stage, natural economy and market economy coexist, and natural economy is dominant; Feudal economy coexists with the bud of capitalism, and feudal economy is dominant. [ 1 1]

Jiang Shoupeng has a similar view. In his view, the feudal economy is the unity of opposites between the natural economy and the commodity economy, and it cannot be generally called the market economy. But a simple commodity economy will also produce a market economy, so there is a market economy in feudal society. Specifically, the market economy emerged with the emergence of commodity production and improved with the development of commodity production. [ 12]

(B) on the market system and the formation of a unified domestic market

The early formation of a relatively complete market network or market system is an important feature of the development of commodity economy in China history, which is recognized by many scholars. However, when this market network or market system came into being and what its characteristics are, there are many different views in academic circles. Only two scholars' views are introduced here.

Tang Wenji pointed out four characteristics of the development of China's feudal market, namely, the large domestic market was not unified, the market monopoly was greater than competition, there were various obstacles to market entry, and there was no effective macro-control. When China formed a unified national market, the academic circles have been divided, or think that such a market appeared in the Warring States, Qin and Han Dynasties; Or until the Opium War, China remained in the pattern of local regional market. Tang's views are different from these. He believes that the ancient national market in China was formed in Qin and Han Dynasties, but it was only the spatial expansion and extension of local regional markets, and it was closed and independent to some extent. He called it a "non-unified national market". Because first, although the circulation network has been formed, it is not completely smooth due to traffic factors, administrative factors, uneven economic development in various places and other factors; Second, there is no unified market value and no price formation mechanism; Third, although China began to implement a unified currency from the Qin Dynasty, the monetary system was still chaotic, and money shortages often occurred. In this case, it is difficult to cultivate a perfect unified market. [ 15]

Jiang Shoupeng believes that the market system is the unity of interrelated markets. From the scope, a complete market network including rural fairs, urban markets, regional markets and national markets has been formed. From the perspective of market types, it includes not only commodity markets, but also real estate markets, labor markets, financial markets, technology markets, information markets and other factor markets. Commodity market, labor market and financial market are the three pillars of the market system. According to this standard, during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, before the Opium War at the latest, the market system of China feudal society had been initially established.

Because at this time, there are not only market networks including rural fairs, urban markets, regional markets and national markets, but also labor markets and financial markets. However, this is still the market system of feudal society, which has both similarities and differences with the modern market. [ 12]