What are some representative theories of motivation?

Motivation theory is a general summary of the principles and methods on how to meet the various needs of people and mobilize their enthusiasm. The purpose of motivation is to stimulate people's correct behavioral motives, mobilize people's enthusiasm and creativity, in order to give full play to people's intellectual effect, to make the greatest achievements. Since the twenties and thirties of this century, many foreign management scientists, psychologists and sociologists combined with the practice of modern management, put forward many incentive theories. These theories according to the formation of the time and the side of the different research, can be divided into behaviorist incentive theory, cognitive incentive theory and comprehensive incentive theory 3 categories. Behaviorist motivation theory In the 1920s, a behaviorist psychological theory was popular in the United States, and its founder was Watson. According to this theory, the essence of the management process is motivation, through incentives to induce human behavior. Under the guidance of the theory of "stimulus-response", the task of the motivator is to select an appropriate set of stimuli, i.e., incentives, in order to elicit the appropriate response standards and stereotyped activities from the motivated. Neo-behaviorist Skinner later proposed the theory of operant conditioning. This theory argues that the primary means of motivating a person cannot be based on stimulus variables alone, but also takes into account the presence of intermediate variables, i.e., subjective human factors. Specifically, in addition to considering money as a stimulus in the means of motivation, the need for the subjective element of the worker must also be taken into account. According to the neo-behaviorist theory, the content of motivational tools should be based on the social psychological point of view, in-depth analysis of people's material and spiritual needs, and aligning the satisfaction of individual needs with the achievement of organizational goals. The neo-behaviorist theory emphasizes that people's behavior depends not only on the perception of the stimulus, but is also determined by the outcome of the behavior. When the outcome of the behavior is favorable to the individual, the behavior is repeated and acts as a reinforcing incentive. If the outcome of the behavior is unfavorable to the individual, the behavior will weaken or disappear. Therefore, the use of reinforcement in education such as affirmation, praise, reward or negation, criticism, and punishment can be directed to control or change the learner's behavior in order to guide it to the desired optimal state. Cognitive School of Motivation Theory Behavior is simply viewed as the mechanical response of the human nervous system to objective stimuli, which is not in line with the objective regularity of human mental activity. For the occurrence and development of human behavior, it is necessary to take into full consideration the internal factors of human beings, such as ideology, interests, values and needs. Therefore, these theories focus on the content and structure of human needs and how to promote people's behavior. Cognitivist theories of motivation also emphasize that the purpose of motivation is to transform negative behaviors into positive behaviors in order to achieve the intended goals of the organization and to achieve better benefits. Therefore, the motivation process should also focus on how to transform and convert human behavior. Other theories that belong to this category include Skinner's theory of operant conditioning and frustration theory. These theories believe that human behavior is the result of the interaction between external environmental stimuli and internal ideological understanding. Therefore, only the combination of changing external environmental stimuli and changing internal ideological understanding can achieve the purpose of changing human behavior. Integrative Motivation Theory Behaviorist motivation theory emphasizes the importance of extrinsic motivation, while cognitive school motivation theory emphasizes the importance of intrinsic motivation. Comprehensive motivation theory, on the other hand, is the synthesis, generalization and development of these two types of theories, which points out a more effective way to solve the problem of mobilizing people's motivation. The Field Dynamics Theory proposed by psychologist Levin is the earliest integrative motivation theory. This theory emphasizes that for the development of human behavior, it is first the result of the interaction between the individual and the environment. The stimulus of the external environment is actually only a fuse, while the human need is an internal driving force, and the direction of human behavior is determined by the interrelationship between the strength of the need in the internal system and the external fuse. If the internal need is not strong, then the strongest fuse does not mean much. Porter and Lawler proposed a new integrative model of motivation in 1968, combining behaviorist extrinsic motivation with cognitiveist intrinsic motivation. Contained in this model are variables such as effort, performance, individual qualities and abilities, individual perceptions, internal motivation, external motivation, and gratification. In this model, Porter and Lawler view the motivational process as a unified process of interaction between external stimuli, internal conditions of the individual, behavioral performance, and behavioral outcomes. It is generally recognized that performance comes with gratification. In contrast, they emphasize that performance comes before satisfaction, that rewards are predicated on performance, and that people's degree of satisfaction with performance and rewards in turn affects the value of subsequent incentives. The level of effort people put into an assignment is determined by the incentive value they receive for completing that assignment and the expected probability that the individual feels that he or she may receive a reward for making the effort. Obviously, the higher the incentive value to the individual and the higher his expected probability, the greater his effort to complete the assignment. At the same time, the outcome of people's activities depends on both the individual's level of effort and the individual's qualities, abilities, and the individual's perception of the role of his work. Porter and Lawler's model of motivation further analyzes the interrelationship between an individual's satisfaction with his work and the outcome of his activities. They state that job satisfaction depends on the consistency of the incentive received with the desired outcome. If the incentive is equal to or greater than the desired outcome, then the individual is satisfied. If the link between incentives and labor outcomes weakens, then people lose confidence. There are three main categories of motivation theories, namely, content-based motivation, process-based motivation, and behavior modification motivation. Editorial content-based motivation theories By content-based motivation theories, we mean theories that address the specifics of the causes of motivation and the factors that play a role in motivation. This theory focuses on the content of what satisfies people's needs, i.e., what people need to be satisfied in order to be motivated. Content-based theories of motivation focus on the study of motivational triggers. Mainly includes Maslow's "hierarchy of needs", Herzberg's "two-factor theory" and McClelland's "achievement needs motivation theory" and so on. Representatives of content-based motivation theory Figure: Comparison of four theories in content-based motivation theory 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory Abraham Harold Maslow (Abraham Harold Maslow 1908.04.01-1970.06.08) first put forward the theory of "Hierarchy of Needs" in 1943, he was the first to propose the theory of "Hierarchy of Needs". Hierarchy of Needs" theory, he divided the complex needs of human beings into five levels: physiological needs, safety needs, the need for friendship and belonging, the need for respect and the need for self-actualization. 1954, in his book "Motivation and Personality", Maslow developed the hierarchy of human needs into seven levels from low to high: physiological needs, safety needs, the need for friendship and belonging, the need for respect and the need for self-actualization, the need for safety, the need for friendship and belonging, the need for respect and the need for self-actualization. and belonging, the need for respect, the need for knowledge, the need for beauty and the need for self-actualization. According to Maslow, it is only when the lower needs are partially satisfied that the higher needs can become important determinants of behavior. The seven needs are sequentially ascending. When the lower level needs are basically satisfied, the pursuit of the higher level needs becomes the driving force of behavior. However, this gradual increase in the hierarchy of needs does not follow an all-or-nothing pattern, i.e., after one need is 100% satisfied, another need will emerge. In fact, most people in society have each of their basic needs partially satisfied under normal circumstances. ② Maslow classified the seven basic needs into high and low levels, among which physiological needs, safety needs, and social needs belong to the low level, and these needs are satisfied through external conditions, such as satisfying physiological needs with the help of wage income and safety needs with the help of the legal system. Respect needs, self-actualization needs are high-level needs, they are satisfied from the inside, and a person will never feel completely satisfied with respect and self-actualization needs. Higher-level needs are more valuable than lower-level needs, and the structure of human needs is dynamic and developing. Therefore, mobilizing workers to be productive by satisfying their higher needs has a more stable and lasting power. This is the theory of motivation proposed by psychologist Maslow. According to this theory, human needs can be categorized into five levels: 1) Physiological needs - the physical needs necessary to maintain human survival. 2) Safety needs - the need to secure the body and mind from harm. 3) The need for belonging and love - including the need for affection, belonging, acceptance, and friendship. 4) The need for respect - includes internal respect such as the need for self-esteem, autonomy, and fulfillment and external respect such as the need for status, recognition, and being valued. 5) The need for self-actualization ----- includes the need for personal growth, fulfillment of personal potential, and the realization of personal aspirations. 2. Herzberg's two-factor theory Motivation Theory - Health Factor Theory It is the American behavioral scientist Fredrick Herzberg (Fredrick Herzberg) put forward, also known as two-factor theory. Herzberg received a bachelor's degree from the City College of New York and a doctorate from the University of Pittsburgh, and later worked in management education and management consulting in the United States and more than thirty other countries, and was a Distinguished Professor of Management at the University of Utah. His major books include The Motivational Factors of Work (1959, co-authored with Bernard Mosner and Barbara Snyderman), Work and Human Nature (1966), and The Choice of Management: More Effective or More Human (1976). Two-Factor Theory was his most significant achievement, and he also conducted pioneering research in the area of job enrichment. In the late 1950s, Herzberg and his associates interviewed two hundred engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area of the United States. The interview mainly centered on two questions: in the work, what matters are to make them feel satisfied, and estimate how long this positive mood lasts; and what matters are to make them feel dissatisfied, and estimate how long this negative mood lasts. Using the answers to these questions as material, Herzberg set out to find out what things made people happy and contented at work and what things caused unhappiness and dissatisfaction. As a result, he found that what makes workers feel satisfied are those belonging to the work itself or the content of the work; what makes workers feel dissatisfied are those belonging to the work environment or the work relationship. He called the former motivational factors and the latter health factors. The satisfaction of health factors has an effect on workers similar to that of health care on physical health. Health care eliminates things harmful to health from the human environment; it does not directly improve health, but has the effect of preventing disease; it is not curative, but preventive. Health care factors include company policies, management practices, supervision, interpersonal relationships, physical working conditions, wages, and benefits. Job dissatisfaction occurs when these factors deteriorate below what is considered an acceptable level. However, when these factors are perceived to be good, it only removes dissatisfaction and does not lead to positive attitudes, which creates a sort of neutral state that is neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. Factors that lead to positive attitudes, satisfaction, and motivation are called "motivators," which are factors that satisfy an individual's need for self-fulfillment, including: achievement, appreciation, challenging work, increased job responsibility, and opportunities for growth and development. When these factors are present, people are more motivated. In this sense, Herzberg argues that traditional motivational assumptions, such as wage incentives, improved interpersonal relationships, and the provision of good working conditions, do not create greater motivation; they eliminate dissatisfaction and prevent problems, but these traditional "motivators" do not create positive incentives, even when they are at their optimal level. According to Herzberg, management should recognize that the health factor is necessary, although it cannot produce more positive results once it has neutralized dissatisfaction. Only "motivational factors" can lead to better performance. Herzberg and his colleagues later on a variety of professional and non-professional industrial organizations carried out a number of surveys, they found that, due to the survey object and the conditions of the different, the attribution of various factors are somewhat different, but in general, the motivational factors basically belong to the work itself or the content of the work, the health factors are basically belong to the work environment and work relations. However, Herzberg noted that the motivational factors and health factors have a number of overlapping phenomena, such as appreciation belongs to the motivational factors, basically play a positive role; but when there is no appreciation, and may play a negative role, which is then manifested as health factors. Wage is a health factor, but sometimes it can also produce results that make employees satisfied. Herzberg's two-factor theory has similarities with Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The health factors he proposed are equivalent to the lower level needs such as physiological needs, safety needs, and emotional needs proposed by Maslow; the motivational factors are equivalent to the higher level needs such as the need to be respected and the need for self-actualization. Of course, their specific analyses and interpretations are different. However, both theories fail to link the "satisfaction of individual needs" with the "achievement of organizational goals". Some Western behavioral scientists doubt the validity of Herzberg's two-factor theory. A number of experiments have been conducted and have failed to confirm this theory. The experiments done by Herzfinger and his colleagues were criticized by some behavioral scientists as being a product of the methodology they used itself: people always attribute good results to their own efforts and blame bad results on objective conditions or others, and the questionnaires did not take into account this general state of mind. In addition, the respondents were not sufficiently representative; in fact, people in different professions and from different walks of life respond differently to motivational and health factors. Practice also proves that a high degree of job satisfaction does not necessarily produce a high degree of motivation. Many behavioral scientists believe that factors, whether related to the work environment or to the content of the work, may have a motivational effect, rather than merely making the worker feel satisfied, depending on many conditions in the environment and in the worker's psychology. However, the two-factor theory is positive in that it draws the attention of business managers to the importance of job content factors, particularly their relationship to job enrichment and job satisfaction. Herzberg tells us that the depth and effect of motivation induced by the fulfillment of various needs are not the same. Satisfaction of material needs is necessary, without which it leads to dissatisfaction, but even when it is achieved, its effect is often very limited and not lasting. To mobilize people's motivation, we should not only pay attention to external factors such as material benefits and working conditions, but more importantly, we should pay attention to the arrangement of work, recruiting according to the talent, each in his own place, paying attention to people's spiritual encouragement, giving praise and recognition, and paying attention to give people the opportunity to grow, develop, and promote. The importance of this intrinsic motivation is becoming more and more obvious as the problem of food and clothing is solved. The theory was proposed by American psychologist Frederick Herzberg (Frederick Herzberg) after 1959 on the basis of a large sample survey of the staff of a number of Pittsburgh-area business organizations. The theory is also known as the motivational factor-health factor theory. The gist of it is that the factors that make an employee dissatisfied are not the same as the factors that make an employee satisfied. Herzberg believed that most of the reasons for great dissatisfaction of the employees belonged to the work environment or work relations, such as the company's policies, administration, the relationship between the employees and their superiors, wages, work safety, and the work environment. He found that the above conditions would trigger the dissatisfaction of the workers if they were not at the minimum acceptable level for the workers. However, having these conditions did not make the workers feel motivated. Herzberg called these external factors that do not motivate "health factors". He also believes that most of the factors that can make workers feel very satisfied and so on belong to the three aspects of the work content and the work itself, such as the sense of accomplishment of the work, the work performance is recognized by the supervisor, the work itself is challenging, and so on. The improvement of these factors can stimulate the enthusiasm and motivation of workers. Herzberg called this factor "motivational factors". This is the "two-factor theory". This theory tells us that managers should first pay attention to satisfy the "health factors" of the workers to prevent the workers from slacking off, so that the workers will not be dissatisfied, and at the same time pay attention to the use of "motivational factors", as far as possible, so that the workers get the opportunity to satisfy. The two-factor theory emphasizes that not all needs can be met to motivate people. It is only when those needs, known as motivators, are met that motivation can be maximized. A lack of motivational factors will not cause a great deal of dissatisfaction. The lack of health factors, on the other hand, will cause a great deal of dissatisfaction, however, when health factors are present they do not necessarily inspire strong motivation. Herzberg also made it clear that; in the absence of health factors, motivators are not very useful. 3. David McClelland's Achievement Needs Theory Harvard University professor David McClelland divides people's higher needs into three categories, i.e., power, interaction and achievement needs. In real life, an organization sometimes becomes a high-achievement organization because it is equipped with people with high achievement motivation needs, but sometimes it is due to placing people in highly competitive positions that the organization produces high-achievement behaviors. McClelland argues that the former is more important than the latter. This suggests that high achievement needs can be developed, and that a whole range of training methods for motivating employees' achievement needs have been developed to increase productivity and to develop the right people for the jobs where high achievement needs arise. Achievement needs theory, also known as motivation needs theory, is the early 1950s, the United States Harvard University psychologist David McClelland (David C. McClelland) concentrated on the study of human needs in the physiological and safety needs to be satisfied after the need for a large number of studies, especially on the need for human achievement, so as to put forward a new content-type incentive theory --Achievement Need Motivation Theory. Achievement needs motivation theory is mainly characterized by: it focuses more on the study of high-level management in the managers, such as the object of his research is mainly survival, material needs have been relatively satisfied at all levels of managers, government officials and government departments, as well as scientists, engineers and other senior talents. Due to this feature of the achievement need motivation theory, it has greater practical significance for scientific research management and cadre management outside the enterprise management. According to McClelland, under the premise that the survival needs of human beings are basically satisfied, the achievement needs, rights needs and the need for conformity are the three most important needs of human beings. The level of achievement needs plays a particularly important role in the development of a person and an enterprise. The theory defines the need for achievement as an internal drive for excellence and success based on appropriate goals. According to the theory, people with achievement needs have strong requirements for competence and success, likewise, they are also worried about failure, they are willing and even eager to accept challenges, often set up for themselves a certain degree of difficulty but not unattainable goals, they are willing to take risks, but also can deal with the adventure with a realistic attitude, never deal with the future with superstitions and fluky mentality, but the problem is good at analyzing and estimating. They are willing to take personal responsibility for the work they do, but want clear and prompt feedback on the work they are doing. These people generally take infrequent breaks, prefer to work long hours, and do not get overly frustrated even when failures do occur. In general, they like to express themselves. The person with a strong need for achievement is highly career-oriented and prefers environments that utilize his independent problem-solving skills. In management, as long as he is provided with the right environment, it will give full play to their abilities. People with a strong need for entitlement have a sense of responsibility, are willing to take on the competition needed and are able to achieve a higher social status in their work and enjoy pursuing and influencing others. The theory also suggests that people with belonging and social needs usually derive joy and satisfaction from friendship, affection, and interpersonal social interaction, and always try to avoid the pain that comes from being shut out of an organization or social group. They like to maintain a cordial social relationship, enjoy the pleasure of intimacy and mutual understanding, and are always ready to comfort and help their partners in distress． The need for conformity is the desire to seek acceptance and friendship from others. People with a strong desire for conformity crave the approval of others, are highly obedient to group norms, and are loyal and dependable. 4. ERG Theory "ERG" theory is the abbreviation of the theory of survival-interrelationship-growth needs. According to Audemars Piguet, there are three types of employee needs: survival needs (E), interrelational needs (R), and growth and developmental needs (G). The theory suggests that the less each level of need is met, the more it is desired; the more the lower level needs are met, the more the higher level needs are desired; and if the higher level needs are repeatedly frustrated and not met, people will re-pursuing the satisfaction of the lower level needs. This theory not only proposes the trend of satisfaction to rise in the hierarchy of needs, but also points out the trend of frustration to regression, which is very inspiring in management work. Alderfer categorized human needs into the following three categories: (1) Survival needs refers to all physiological and material needs. Such as food, shelter, sleep, etc. Compensation in the organization, the basic requirements of the work environment and conditions, etc., can also be included in the survival needs. This category of needs roughly corresponds to Maslow's hierarchy of needs in physiological and partial safety needs. (2) Interrelational Needs Refers to the need for interrelationships and connections (or social relationships) between people. This category of needs is similar to some of the safety needs, all of the belonging or social needs, and some of the respect needs in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. (3) Growth Needs An inner desire for improvement and development, which refers to the need to not only realize one's full potential, make a difference, and achieve, but also to develop new abilities. This type of need corresponds to some of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as the need for respect and the need for self-actualization. According to this theory, the less the needs of each level are satisfied, the more they are desired by people; the more the lower level needs can be satisfied, the more the higher level needs are desired to be satisfied; if the higher level needs are repeatedly frustrated and not satisfied, people will pursue the satisfaction of the lower level needs again. This theory not only proposes the trend of satisfaction to rise in the hierarchy of needs, but also points out the trend of frustration to regression, which is very inspiring in management work. Also, ERG theory suggests that a person can have more than one need at a time. Edit Process-based motivation theories Process-based motivation theories focus on the psychological process from the creation of motivation to taking action. It mainly includes Frum's "Expectancy Theory", Hyde's attribution theory and Adams's "Equity Theory", etc. 1. 1. Froome's Expectancy Theory This is a theory proposed by psychologist Victor Froome. This is a theory proposed by psychologist Victor Froome. Expectancy theory suggests that people adopt certain behaviors because they feel that such behaviors can achieve certain results with certainty and that such results are valuable enough to them. In other words, the level of motivational incentives depends on the extent to which people believe that they can expect to achieve the expected outcome and on whether they judge their efforts to be meaningful in terms of satisfying their personal needs. 2. Hyde's Attribution Theory Attribution theory was proposed by the American psychologist Hyde in 1958 and was later revitalized by the research of the American psychologist Weiner and his colleagues. Attribution theory is a general term for a variety of theories and methods for exploring the causes of people's behavior and analyzing causal relationships. Attribution theory focuses on the cognitive process used by individuals to explain the causes of their behavior, that is, the study of human behavior is incentivized by the "because of what" problem. 3. Adams' Equity Theory Equity theory, also known as social comparison theory, is a motivation theory put forward by Adams, an American behavioral scientist, in his works such as "The Relationship Between Workers' Internal Conflicts About Wage Inequity and Their Productivity", "The Impact of Wage Inequity on the Quality of Work", and "Unfairness in Social Exchanges", etc. The theory focuses on the distribution of wages and compensation, which is the most important issue in the study of human behavior. The theory focuses on the rationality and fairness of the distribution of wage and compensation and its effect on employee motivation to produce. Editorial Behavior Modification Theory Behavior modification theory focuses on the purpose of motivation (i.e., to modify and amend behavior). It mainly includes Skinner's reinforcement theory and frustration theory and so on. 1. reinforcement theory Reinforcement theory is a theory proposed by American psychologist and behavioral scientist Skinner and others. Reinforcement theory is a doctrine about understanding and modifying human behavior based on the principle of reinforcement of learning. By reinforcement, in its most basic form, is meant a positive or negative consequence (reward or punishment) for a behavior that will determine, at least in part, whether or not that behavior will be repeated in the future. Based on the nature and purpose of reinforcement, it can be categorized into positive and negative reinforcement. In management, positive reinforcement is rewarding those behaviors that are organizationally desirable, thereby reinforcing such behaviors; negative reinforcement is punishing those behaviors that are incompatible with the organization, thereby weakening such behaviors. Positive reinforcement methods include bonuses, recognition of accomplishments, praise, improvements in the work environment and interpersonal relationships, promotions, placement in challenging jobs, and opportunities to learn and grow. Negative reinforcement includes criticism, disciplinary action, demotion, etc. Sometimes not giving rewards or giving fewer rewards is also a form of negative reinforcement. 2. Frustration Theory Frustration theory is a motivational theory about how to solve problems and mobilize motivation after an individual's goal behavior is hindered. Frustration is a personal subjective feeling, the same encounter, some people may constitute a strongly frustrating situation, while others do not necessarily constitute frustration. Edit this section of the establishment and implementation of incentives to implement the goal incentives 1. Goal Setting (1) The goal should be specific. (2) The social value of the goal should be clarified and linked to personal interests. (3) The goal should be both difficult and possible to achieve. (4) Involve the person who will accomplish the goal in setting the goal. (5) To have timely and objective feedback on the process of achieving goals. 2. Goal management (1) to set the overall goal. (2) Make organizational preparations. (3) Develop personal plans. (4) Evaluation of milestones. Create a corporate culture suitable for the characteristics of the enterprise The 21st century will be an era full of change, and the magnitude of change continues to increase, accelerating the tempo, which requires business organizations must be from the rigid mechanical model, transformed into a more flexible and adaptive organic model; competition between enterprises has evolved from the competition for productivity to the competition for the rate of innovation, and the basic nature of the competition is the competition for corporate culture, the traditional "command". The traditional "command-style" leadership is no longer suitable for the management of the new "knowledge workers". Management to a certain extent is to use a certain culture to shape people, only when the corporate culture can be truly integrated into the personal values of each employee, they can take the enterprise's goals as their own goals, so the management of the culture recognized by the staff, can provide impetus for the long-term development of the enterprise. The establishment and implementation of multi-runway, multi-level incentive mechanism After entering the 1990s, people have stronger material requirements and a strong sense of self, from these characteristics, how to develop a new, reasonable and effective incentive programs? 1. A little more space, a little more approach, according to the characteristics of enterprise development to motivate more than one runway. 2. To incentivize more than one runway, so that the employee can really feel at ease in the position that best suits him. 3. Find ways to understand what employees need. In short, the means of incentives taken to be flexible and diverse, according to different jobs, different people, different situations to develop a different system, but never a system from one to the other. Consider the individual differences in employees, the implementation of differential incentive mechanism The purpose of incentives is to improve employee motivation, the main factors affecting motivation are: the nature of the work, leadership behavior, personal development, interpersonal relationships, compensation and welfare and the work environment, and these factors are different for different enterprises to have an impact on the sort of different. The influence of different factors on different types of enterprises in order: It can be seen that enterprises should be based on different types and characteristics of the incentive system, and in the implementation of the incentive mechanism must take into account individual differences.