Characteristics and history of ceramics

Ceramics in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties: The pottery pieces and pots unearthed in the ruins of Yin Ruins include many styles, including gray pottery, black pottery, red pottery, painted pottery, white pottery and glazed hard pottery. The decorative patterns, symbols and characters on these pottery are closely related to Oracle Bone Inscriptions and celadon in the Shang Dynasty.

The cost of celadon is so high that only the nobles can enjoy it, and the general public can only use pottery for their daily necessities.

Therefore, it can be understood that the pottery-making technology of the Shang Dynasty has also been generally developed. During this period, hard pottery with glaze appeared, with green glaze, brownish yellow, hard fetal quality and gray white.

At this time, pottery is no longer limited to containers, but has a wide range of applications, which can be roughly divided into daily necessities, buildings, martyrs and sacrificial vessels.

The imperial court also attached great importance to pottery making.

Ceramics in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period: After this period, the most famous firewood kiln in Zhou Shizong was dominated by azure, and Sejong evaluated it as "the color of the future like rain", so it was known as "the rain cleared up".

It is recorded on the road that "the sky is blue, the mirror is bright, the paper is thin, and the bells are ringing", which shows that its production is exquisite.

Ceramics in Qin and Han Dynasties: Most of the buildings in Qin and Han Dynasties are framed by wood, which is difficult to last long. Therefore, some great buildings, such as Afang Palace in Qin Dynasty and Weiyang Palace in Han Dynasty, can not be completely preserved, but they can still be found in the remaining relics, such as tiles and Han bricks, so as to get a glimpse of the scale of ancient buildings.

(1) Tile: The tile at the front end of the eaves is a tile, and a circular baffle with a pattern on the tile surface hangs down.

The pattern design of ceramic tiles is beautiful, and the fonts are changeable, such as moire, geometric pattern, gluttonous pattern, text pattern, animal pattern and so on. , are exquisite works of art..

(2) Han bricks: The carvings on Han bricks are all-encompassing, complicated and exquisite.

Paintings and relief images are vivid and flexible; The stories they expressed were the epitome of the society at that time. Among the Han tombs found in Pengshan, Sichuan, there is a kind of brick specially used to build tombs or tunnels. It seems that the principle of hollow cylinder in applied physics is known in structure.

Since ancient times, our society has advocated thick burial. Pottery can be immortal for a long time and become the best funerary objects, including model houses, musical instruments, birds and animals, figurines and so on. The Terracotta Warriors and Horses in Qin and Han Dynasties were the most famous. Recently, they have been unearthed one after another, attracting the attention of archaeologists. (3) Most of the terracotta warriors and horses are assembled. First, it is made of ceramic mold, then covered with a layer of fine mud for processing, characterization and coloring, and some are fired first.

(4) Lead-glazed pottery: Lead-glazed pottery is an innovation of pottery in the Han Dynasty, with many colors such as yellow, brown and green. Green glaze is more popular. Based on lead glaze, turquoise can be obtained with a little oxidation, and the melting point is only 700 to 800 degrees Celsius, which is necessary and can be hung on the tire thinly.

South China is also rich in blue glazed pottery with high temperature and hard enamel, which is also the beginning of the late development of celadon.

Celadon appeared in the middle and late Eastern Han Dynasty, and "Dragon Kiln" was used to raise the kiln temperature, and kaolin used for general porcelain was also selected.

Ceramics of Sui Dynasty: In 589, Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty usurped the Northern Zhou Dynasty, annexed Nanchen and unified the Central Plains, and renamed it Sui. Although the Sui Dynasty was short-lived, there was a new breakthrough in porcelain firing, not only celadon firing, but also white porcelain developed well. In addition, there were also innovations in decoration technology during this period, such as another piece of clay-the decal on the vessel, which is an example.

Ceramics in the Tang Dynasty: In the Tang Dynasty, porcelain production can be transformed into a mature realm and enter the real porcelain era.

Because the distinction between ceramics depends on whether it is white, hard or translucent, and the biggest key is the firing temperature.

Although there were porcelains in the Han Dynasty, the temperature was not high and the texture was fragile, so they could only be regarded as original porcelains. But in the Tang Dynasty, not only the glaze color was mature, but also the firing temperature could reach 1000 degrees Celsius, so we say that the Tang Dynasty was the era when porcelain really entered.

The most famous in the Tang Dynasty is the Tri-colored Tang Dynasty.

The most important product in the Tang Dynasty is the well-known Tri-colored Tang Dynasty, which has been widely liked and collected until today.

Tang Sancai was buried with bright yellow, green and cyan lead glazes, hence its name. However, not every piece of Tang tri-color has three colors, but using the glaze technology of tri-color mixing, beautiful flowers can be made. First, dark patterns are carved on the blank, which are endless and colorful.

Tang Sancai is distributed in Chang 'an and Luoyang, West Kiln in Chang 'an and East Kiln in Luoyang.

Thick burial prevailed in the Tang Dynasty, not only among high-ranking officials and nobles, but also among ordinary people, and it has formed an atmosphere.

There are all kinds of people, animals, plates, water vessels, wine vessels, stationery, furniture, houses, and even pots and pans with ashes.

Generally speaking, people like horse figurines. Some of them are flying with their feet up, some are standing around, some are hissing, and their postures are very vivid.

In terms of characters, there are women, civil servants, military commanders, Hu figurines and heavenly kings, who depict different personalities and characteristics according to social status and rank; The lady has a plump face, her hair is combed into various bun, and she is wearing colorful clothes. Civil servants are polite, warriors are strong and brave, Hu figurines are tall and deep-eyed, and kings glare at them, which is a model of ancient sculpture in China.

Ceramics in the Song Dynasty: In the late Zhou Dynasty, Zhao Kuangyin seized power and established Kaifeng, the capital of the Song Dynasty, which was called the Northern Song Dynasty in history.

Porcelain in Song Dynasty was the heyday of China, and "Song Porcelain" was also famous all over the world.

Ding Kiln, Ru Kiln, Guan Kiln, Ge Kiln and Jun Kiln are five famous kilns, which are beautiful in shape, elegant and dignified, not only surpassing the achievements of predecessors, but even the imitations of later generations are hard to reach.

Porcelain in Yuan Dynasty: In 9 1 year after Yuan Dynasty entered the Central Plains, the porcelain industry declined compared with Song Dynasty. However, there were also new developments in this period, such as the rise of blue and white and glaze red, the popularity of a large number of colored porcelain, and white porcelain became the mainstream of porcelain, which promoted the development of porcelain in the Ming and Qing Dynasties and made great achievements.

(1) Shufu Kiln: The official kiln designed by Jingdezhen in the Yuan Dynasty, with exquisite production and the word "Shufu" often appearing in the pattern, is also called Shufu Kiln. Also from the Yuan Dynasty, Jingdezhen gradually formed a national porcelain manufacturing center.

(2) Blue-and-white: Blue-and-white is to draw patterns on white porcelain with cobalt, and only one kind of blue is used, but the shades and layers of pigments can present extremely rich and varied artistic effects.

Blue and white are simple and gorgeous, complex and unified. Like blue calico, it has the characteristics of simplicity, simplicity and elegance, and has become the main variety of porcelain.

(3) Glaze red: Glaze red is an underglaze color painting in which cobalt is replaced by oxidation, similar to blue and white. Because it is reduced to snow red and the glaze color is red, it is named glaze red. Another red expression that appeared after Jun Kiln in Yuan Dynasty is not easy to burn, and it is a kind of refractory porcelain. It is often grayish red or dark brown, quite unstable, with little output and even less handed down.

Ming Dynasty ceramics: China ceramic art developed into a new journey in the Ming Dynasty. Before the Ming Dynasty, celadon was the main product. After the Ming Dynasty, white porcelain, especially blue and white porcelain, became the main product of white porcelain in the Ming Dynasty. Jingdezhen became the main kiln factory with the largest scale, which lasted for five or six hundred years in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is described as "white smoke covers the sky during the day and red flame burns the sky at night".

Yongle Xuande period is the early stage of blue-and-white porcelain, although it is not as delicate as sweet and white, but the blue-and-white porcelain in this period shines brilliantly because of the investment and use of Su Ni Bo Qing Co material. The painter's artistic accomplishment is very high, and the faint green material is used as the brushwork of bone-end flowers, which produces the interest of ink painting; Some use different shades on the lines to produce vivid changes, which are more vivid and powerful.

Since the Yuan Dynasty, the introduction of Islam has also brought rich patterns to this era. Coupled with the application of China's paintings, the layout content is clear and clear, giving people a sense of grandeur and simplicity.

Chenghua and Zhengde were in the middle period of blue and white porcelain, when Suniboqing had run out and used Ping Dengqing instead. The color is not as rich as that of Su Qing, and there is no faint ink effect. Therefore, it is developing in the direction of adding color or meticulous expression, with fine, fine and even painting techniques, and adding thin white porcelain to achieve the purpose of exquisiteness.

Jiajing and Wanli years were the late period of blue and white porcelain, and the use of Hui Qing brought a grand occasion to Jiajing kiln with rich colors.

At this time, the output is large, and it is shipped to Europe by Dutch.

The famous colorful fighting colors in Wanli period became the basis for the development of colored porcelain in later generations. Even the ancient porcelain in Imari was developed according to the colorful battles in this period, and "Wanli Color" became famous in history.

At the same time, there are various colored magnets such as rehmannia glutinosa, blue yellow flowers, red and blue flowers, yellow and blue flowers and red paintings, as well as the achievements of previous kilns. The variety is ever-changing and has increased a lot.

Since the Ming Dynasty, kiln sites have often been concentrated in Jingdezhen. Both official kilns and folk kilns tend to paint porcelain. Before the Song Dynasty, single glaze was dominant. After the Ming Dynasty, the porcelain tire became thinner and whiter, and the style of the blank began to be remembered. The age, hall number and names are all available, which makes the research evidence more reliable.

Ceramics in Qing Dynasty: China reached its peak.

Thousands of years' experience, together with Jingdezhen's natural raw materials and the management of pottery officials, as well as the three generations of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong in the early Qing Dynasty, due to political stability and economic prosperity, the emperor's attention to porcelain, the emperor's hobbies and advocacy, made the porcelain in the early Qing Dynasty superb in craftsmanship, exquisite decoration and extraordinary achievements, which was the most brilliant in the long history of China ceramics.

In the Qing Dynasty, except the official kilns in Jingdezhen, the local folk kilns were extremely prosperous and made great achievements, especially the introduction of western raw materials and technology, which made the ceramic industry more colorful. There is also the pursuit of exquisiteness due to mass production and imitation. Although there are amazing works, they lack some creativity and become pure craftsmen.

Fujian Dehua white porcelain is white and transparent, and the production of Buddha statues is quite famous.

By the middle of Qing Dynasty, the exported ceramics had developed into colorful and colorful photos.

(1) Pastel: In Yongzheng period, pastel was the most successful. Pastel is mainly characterized by soft and elegant tone and fine and neat proportion, so it is also called "soft color". The white powder puff base is used to form a pattern and then colored and dyed into different shades. Fresh and thorough, warm and simple, with the meaning of meticulous flowers and birds, and strong decoration.

(2) Enamel color: Qianlong period inherited the atmosphere of the previous dynasty and produced many exquisite works. Later, I spared no expense to pursue creativity, and applied various technologies to ceramics, resulting in many products imitating other materials.

The greatest achievement in painting is enamel, which was first fired with imported pigments, so it is also called "foreign color".

The materials used in enamel color are crystal clear and thick, and are used for decoration. The pattern has a slightly concave-convex feeling.

Jingdezhen porcelain tires were transported to the palace and ordered to be painted by the chemical industry of the Academy of Painting. Most of them belong to the secret play of the imperial palace, so the decorative painting method is extremely fine, the pursuit of gorgeous, with a palace atmosphere, with the style of "Guyuexuan" in the palace, all of which belong to the imperial palace and become the famous Guyuexuan porcelain.

(3) Purple Sand: Yixing produced more purple sand in Qing Dynasty, and famous artists came forth in large numbers. In addition to making Yixing pots, various daily necessities such as dishes, vases, flower pots, etc. All kinds of painted pottery are also very creative to keep the tires natural and quaint.

(4) Weaving gold: "Weaving gold" is to fill the groove with gold thread, which is quite distinctive. Jingdezhen white embryo is used to add color to export in Guangzhou, and it has been passed down to this day.

(5) Black Porcelain: Black porcelain in Boshan, Shandong Province is a favorite commodity for northern farmers.

(6) Shiwan Sculpture: In recent years, the figures created by Guangdong Shiwan have received great attention, and the glaze color is varied and lifelike, especially the story figures, whose expressions are vivid, powerful and interesting.

Modern ceramics in China: After the Opium War, China was reduced to a semi-feudal and semi-colonial society, China's national industry was severely damaged, and famous kilns with thousands of years of history stagnated and tended to decline.

The production level of ceramics is declining, the production scale is shrinking, and the manufacturing technology is still using the old methods.

After all, China has a long tradition of making porcelain, and the vast number of porcelain workers are skilled. Under extremely difficult circumstances, they made great efforts to develop the production of antique porcelain and artistic porcelain featuring handicraft skills, and persisted in fighting against foreign machine-made daily-use porcelain, thus maintaining the international reputation of China porcelain and showing the potential of revitalizing declining ceramics.

Blue and white porcelain is the mainstream of porcelain production in Ming and Qing dynasties, which flourished for 400 years.

The use of different green materials in different periods and the resulting different tone effects and styles become an important basis for judging the age of porcelain.

The modeling of Ming and Qing porcelain is more in line with the needs of real life.

Therefore, bottles, cans, pots, plates, bowls and other utensils have many forms.

Blue and white porcelain is the mainstream of porcelain production in Ming and Qing dynasties, which flourished for 400 years.

The use of different green materials in different periods and the resulting different tone effects and styles become an important basis for judging the age of porcelain.

Yongle and Xuande blue-and-white porcelain were influenced by silverware and bronzes in West Asia in shape and decoration. Holding pots, watering flowers, folding pots, candlesticks, bowls and so on all have Western Asian styles.

Plum bottles, flat bottles, fairy bottles and various cans, plates, bowls and bottles are all common shapes in this period.

Dragon and phoenix patterns account for the main proportion in the ornamentation, which runs through the whole Ming and Qing dynasties.

Zhengde porcelain is decorated with more Arabic because the concubines of Ming Wuzong believe in Islam.

Jiajing porcelain is characterized by many gourd bottles, square, round, tall, short, big and small.

In addition, there are many square objects.

Because Sejong believes in Taoism, the decoration has a strong Taoist color, and the typical decoration is the Eight Immortals, Clouds and Eight Diagrams.

Fringe patterns are also common decorations in this period.

During the reign of Kangxi, the porcelain of folk kilns developed greatly and was exported in large quantities. There are a large number of Kangxi kiln porcelain in Europe.

Ear cap bottle has the modeling characteristics of European porcelain.

Character patterns, landscape patterns, phoenix-tailed bottles and stick-pestle bottles are more common.

Kangxi blue and white is bright because of blue, with many layers and the effect of ink painting.

Multicolored porcelain began in Xuande period of Ming Dynasty, and developed greatly between Jiajing and Wanli years.

In the Kangxi period, underglaze blue replaced underglaze blue and white, black, purple and gold. In addition, red, green and purple can distinguish different tones.

Decorative themes are almost all-encompassing, with figures, birds and beasts, flowers and plants, insects and butterflies vivid and colorful, reaching the peak of the development of colored porcelain in history.