The complete history of jade culture in China?

Without the knowledge of jade, it is impossible to really understand Chinese civilization; What is the golden key to solve the mystery of world cultural development?

First, if a gentleman has no reason, jade won't go.

1863, Demol, a French geologist, made a physical and chemical experiment based on the jade articles of Qianlong Dynasty in China in Qing Dynasty introduced to Europe. The results show that there are two kinds of jade, namely amphibole and pyroxene.

Hornblende, also known as nephrite, has a hardness of 6-6.5 Mohs and a specific gravity of 2. 55-2.65. Its main component is fiber mineral calcium silicate, which belongs to amphibole. The color of amphibole is close to the solidification beauty of oil, and the pure one is white, commonly known as suet jade, which is delicate and moist, very precious and of high economic value. Because amphibole contains a small amount of oxidized metal ions, it appears blue, green, black, yellow and other colors or variegated. Pyroxene, also called jadeite, has the best texture because of its green color, and is also called jadeite in China. The hardness is 6.75-7 degrees and the specific gravity is 3.2-3.3. Pyroxene is mainly composed of sodium silicate and aluminum silicate, with dim crystal structure, hard texture, high density, glass luster and crystal clear. Emerald green, apple green, snowflake white and delicate lavender are typical colors of pyroxene. Pyroxene (jadeite, such as jadeite) was widely used by jade artisans in China after18th century.

Therefore, most ancient jade articles in China are hornblende (nephrite, such as Hetian jade). Hetian jade is mainly composed of tremolite-actinolite, and contains minerals such as serpentine, graphite and magnet, forming different colors such as white, turquoise, black and yellow. Most of them are monochromatic jade, and a few have variegated colors. Jade is translucent, greasy and shiny after polishing, and its hardness is 5.5 to 6.4 degrees. This is mineral jade.

Jade has a wide range of connotations in the study of China culture. Xu Shen of Han Dynasty said in Shuo Wen Jie Zi that jade and stone are both beautiful and good things. The so-called five virtues refer to the five characteristics of jade. All beautiful stones with tough texture, crystal luster, bright colors, dense and transparent organization and far-reaching soothing sound are considered as jade. According to this standard, jade in the eyes of the ancients includes not only real jade (hornblende), but also colored stone jade such as serpentine, turquoise, malachite, agate, crystal, amber and ruby. Therefore, when appreciating ancient jade, we should not only use modern scientific knowledge to identify the pros and cons, but also have a historical perspective.

China is a jade-producing country in the world, which not only has a long mining history, but also has a wide geographical distribution and abundant reserves. According to Shan Hai Jing, there are more than 200 jade producing areas in China. After thousands of years of development and utilization, some jade mines have dried up, but some famous jade mines are still being mined in large quantities, which provides a steady stream of raw materials for the development of jade carving art in China. The most famous jade producing area in China is Hotan, Xinjiang. Hetian jade has the richest quantity, the brightest color, the best quality and the most expensive price. It is an important source of raw materials for jade in ancient China, and the royal family in past dynasties loved to use Hetian jade grinding machine. Besides Hetian jade, there are Jiuquan jade in Gansu, lantian jade in Shaanxi, dushan jade and Yuxian jade in Henan and xiuyan jade in Liaoning. It is also a common raw material for Chinese jade. China has a wise saying that "stones from other mountains can attack jade", which tells the true meaning of cutting jade. In fact, the outstanding jade in nature is not carved, but is polished into a designed finished product with emery, timely, garnet and other "jade-solving sand" with hardness higher than that of jade, supplemented by water. Therefore, in jargon, making jade is not called carving jade, but treating jade, or cutting, grinding and grinding jade. The skill of cutting jade is superb, but the tools for processing jade are simple.

Until modern times, China people have been using traditional tools, such as wire saws, disks made of steel and wrought iron, round wheels, drilling machines, semi-disks and wooden lathes to make jade articles. In the Neolithic Age and Bronze Age before the invention of iron, most tools were even made of wood and bamboo, bones and sandstone. It's a miracle that such primitive tools can make such exquisite jade articles.

Mr. Lin Zhong summed up a good jade article into four elements: material, shape, craft and theme. These four elements make jade surpass its natural attribute of "mountain essence" and contain humanistic spirit: the essence of mountains and rivers and the essence of humanity. The elites of mountains and rivers talk about the beauty of materials. Every piece of jade should be made clear whether it is hornblende or jadeite, or colored stone jade such as turquoise, agate, serpentine and crystal, and further explore its source.

Exquisite humanism refers to the beauty of modeling, carving and theme of jade, as well as the technical and social factors that affect the beauty of modeling and carving. Due to the different materials, tools and skills of carving jade, different aesthetic tastes and customs, the uses and functions of jade are also different, and the styles and themes of jade in different periods are also different. & ltI > Chinese jade has a long history of 7000 years.

7,000 years ago, in the process of selecting stone utensils, our ancestors consciously made beautiful stones they found into ornaments, dressed themselves up and beautified their lives, which opened the curtain of jade culture in China. In the middle and late Neolithic Age four or five thousand years ago, the dawn of Chinese jade culture shone everywhere. At that time, Zhuoyu had separated from the stone industry and became an independent handicraft department. The jade unearthed from Liangzhu culture in Taihu Lake basin and Hongshan Culture in Liaohe River basin are the most striking.

Jade ritual vessels are symbols of kingship and rank, and burying them with jade is a means to pray for eternal life.

There are many kinds of jade articles in Liangzhu culture, such as jade cong, jade bi, jade yue, three-pronged jade articles and string jade ornaments. Liangzhu jade, which is proud of its large size, appears profound and rigorous, and its symmetry and balance have been fully utilized, especially the decorative technique of bas-relief, especially the line engraving technique, which has reached the point where it is almost beyond the reach of later generations. The description of jade cong and animal face feather, which can best reflect the level of jade carving in Liangzhu, is various and huge, and the characters are inscrutable.

Compared with Liangzhu jade, square jade in Hongshan Culture is rare, but it is characterized by animal-shaped jade and round jade. Typical vessels are jade dragon, jade animal-shaped ornaments and jade ring vessels. The biggest feature of Hongshan Culture's jade carving skills is that jade carving craftsmen can skillfully use jade materials with only a few knives, grasp the modeling characteristics of objects, and portray the image of objects vividly. "Spirit likeness" is the biggest feature of Hongshan ancient jade. Hongshan ancient jade, not big, but exquisite.

From the analysis of Liangzhu and Hongshan ancient jade mostly from large and medium-sized tombs, it is found that Neolithic jade not only has several uses such as offering sacrifices to heaven and earth, but also can ward off evil spirits and symbolize power, wealth and dignity. From the beginning, China's jade has a mysterious color.

The legendary Xia Dynasty was the first class society in China. With the continuous accumulation of archaeological data, legends have gradually become a reality, and Xia culture has been constantly revealed. The style of jade articles in Xia Dynasty should be the transitional form from Liangzhu culture to Longshan culture and from Hongshan Culture to Yin Shang jade articles, which can be seen from the jade articles unearthed from Erlitou site in Yanshi, Henan. The seven-hole jade knife unearthed in Erlitou originated from the porous stone knife in the late Neolithic period, and the carving pattern has the origin of the double-line outline of Shang Dynasty jade, which should be Xia Dynasty jade. < second > Shang dynasty was the first written slavery country in China. Shang civilization is famous not only for its solemn bronzes, but also for its numerous jade articles.

In the early Shang Dynasty, there were few jades, and the cutting was rough. The jades in the late Shang Dynasty, represented by those unearthed from the Muhao Tomb in Yinxu, Anyang, produced a total of 755 jades, which can be divided into six categories according to their uses: ritual vessels, ritual vessels, tools, utensils, decorations and miscellaneous vessels. Jade craftsmen in Shang Dynasty used Hetian jade extensively. In the Shang dynasty, some practical utensils appeared, such as the reed and the sapphire reed, which imitated the Yi-Yi bronze ware. The jade articles of animals and figures are much more than geometric jade articles, such as jade dragon, jade phoenix and jade parrot, with different expressions and beautiful appearance. Jade people, or standing, or kneeling, or sitting, have different attitudes; It is difficult to tell whether it is a master, a slave or a prisoner. Jade Turtle, the earliest beautiful jade in China, appeared in Shang Dynasty. The most amazing and successful thing is that a large number of round carvings have appeared in the Shang Dynasty. In addition, jade artisans also use double parallel concave carving lines (commonly known as double hook lines) to consciously present a male pattern between the two buses, so that the male and bus lines play a powerful role at the same time, and the whole pattern changes perfectly. It not only eliminates the monotony of completely using negative lines, but also enhances the three-dimensional sense of pattern lines.

While inheriting the double-line sketch technique of Yin and Shang jade articles, the Western Zhou jade articles created the carving technique of carving jade with thick slope lines or thin yinxian lines, which shone brightly on bird-shaped jade knives and animal-faced jade ornaments. On the whole, however, the jade articles of the Western Zhou Dynasty are not as lively and diverse as those of the Shang Dynasty, but a little rigid and too formal. This is also related to the strict patriarchal clan system and etiquette system in the Western Zhou Dynasty.

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, political princes competed for hegemony, academic schools contended, culture and art blossomed, and jade carving art was colorful, comparable to the Greek and Roman stone carving art in the Mediterranean basin at that time.

The royal family of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty and various governors,

For their own interests, everyone regards jade as the embodiment of themselves (gentlemen). They wear jade ornaments and flaunt themselves as benevolent gentlemen with "virtue". "If a gentleman has no reason, jade will not go." Every scholar-bureaucrat has a series of jade ornaments from head to toe, especially the Yu Pei series at the waist is more complicated. Therefore, Yu Pei was particularly developed at that time. A large number of Yu Pei with dragons, phoenixes and tigers can embody the spirit of the times, showing S-shape, full of dynamic beauty, with strong Chinese style and national characteristics. There are hidden valley lines in the pattern, hollowing out techniques, and applying single-yinxian hook lines or double-yinxian leaf lines on the ground, which is saturated and harmonious. The jade ornaments on the head of the snake and the arched head of the parrot reflect the level of jade carving and Yu Pei in the Spring and Autumn Period.

Yu Pei unearthed from the tomb of Zeng Houyi in Hubei Province and Dahuangpei unearthed from Guwei Village in Huixian County, Henan Province, all made a complete Yu Pei with several pieces of jade, which was the most difficult craft in Yu Pei during the Warring States Period. Jade belt hook and jade sword ornament (jade sword) are new jade articles at this time. < Third > During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Hetian jade was imported into the Central Plains in large quantities, and royal princes competed to choose Hetian jade. The hanging jade lamps collected in the Forbidden City are standard Hetian jade. At this time, Confucian scholars combined the study of etiquette with Hetian jade, and used Hetian jade to embody etiquette thought.

In order to adapt to the rulers' love for Hetian jade, the traditional Confucian concepts of benevolence, wisdom, righteousness, propriety, joy, loyalty, faithfulness, heaven, earth and virtue are compared with the physical and chemical properties of Hetian jade, and then the theory that "a gentleman is better than jade" is produced. Jade has five virtues, nine virtues and eleven virtues. "Extract the attributes of jade, endow it with philosophical thoughts and conduct moral education; Arrange the shape of jade, endow it with yin and yang thoughts, and make it religious; Compared with the scale of jade, give it a rank and politicize it. " (Guo Baojun's New Interpretation of Ancient Jade) is a highly theoretical summary of the study of etiquette and jade at that time. This is the theoretical basis for the enduring jade carving art in China, and it is the spiritual pillar of China people's 7,000-year-old jade-loving fashion.

China has a history of 7,000 years of jade use and 2,500 years of jade research, which has earned China the reputation of "Jade Country".

The early history, long duration, wide distribution, numerous shapes, exquisite craftsmanship and deep influence of ancient jade articles in China are beyond the reach of any other country. In the long-term historical process, China people have formed a deep-rooted national psychology of worshipping and loving jade, and their deification, spiritual concept and special function view of jade are all rooted here. As an important part of Chinese civilization, jade culture itself has an immeasurable and far-reaching influence in thousands of years of civilization history in China. Joseph Needham, a famous scholar, even said in the History of Science and Technology in China:

"Love jade can be said to be one of the cultural characteristics of China, which has inspired sculptors, poets and painters." Second, the cultural background and historical evolution of Hetian jade. Mountain material, also known as famous mountain jade, refers to the primary mine produced in the mountains. The characteristics of mountain materials are that the pieces are different in size and angular, and the quality is often not as good as that of seed jade. Landscape refers to the jade which is brought to the middle and upper reaches of the river by the weathering and collapse of primary ore. It is characterized by being close to the primary ore, with large block size, slightly rounded edges and corners and smooth surface. Seed jade refers to the jade whose primary ore is denuded by flowing water and transported to the river. It is characterized by small block size, oval shape and smooth surface. The quality of seed jade is generally good because of long-term treatment, washing and sorting. The earliest Hetian jade has been found from Fu Hao's tomb in Yin Ruins. After the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Hetian jade gradually became the main jade talents, all collecting materials, and it was not until the Qing Dynasty that the mining of mountain materials began. Dayu, made in Qianlong period of Qing Dynasty, was used to harness the water of Yushan Mountain. Sapphire weighs only 10700 Jin, that is, it was collected from Mileta Mountain.

Special suet white jade seed jade is only produced in Yulong Kashi River (Baiyu River) and Karakash River (Moyu River). I used to be able to produce hundreds of pounds of suet jade hair a year. Although large-scale mechanical mining has been introduced in recent years, the annual output is only a few hundred kilograms, which is on the verge of extinction. Because sheep fat white jade is weathered and transported first, and then washed away by water for thousands of years, the core essence can be condensed. In fact, what is left is very fine, so the color is as white as sheep fat, the luster is as bright as the moon, and the structural components are very pure.

At present, there is no quality grading standard of white jade in China (because the composition, whiteness and structural fineness of jade can be measured, but there is no quantitative index to define oiliness and moistening), which leads to a mixed market, and some people take the opportunity to mix cuttlefish.

Sheep fat jade' is only an old name for the high-quality white jade (glittering and translucent and oily, but concise in quality) in Hetian, Xinjiang, and also represents the higher grade of soft white jade in Hetian, China! No matter what kind of material is white enough, it is called suet white jade, which is irresponsible. According to the current grade (Hoan seed material with tremolite as the main generating substance), it can only be called' sheep fat' white jade if its density, chromaticity, oiliness and purity reach the first grade. In addition, the white jade of suet grade is not particularly white, but yellowish! Sheep fat white jade is the best of jade. The current price is more than 20 W per kilogram, far better than gold, and the wearing value is far better than diamonds! In Chinese ancient books, Kunlun Mountain, the birthplace of Hetian jade, is called "the mountain of jade" and "the ancestor of Wanshan".

Money also has the saying that "Li Jinsheng is hidden in the water, and the Jade Kunlun Mountains". Hetian jade in Xinjiang has been developed and utilized for more than 7000 years. As early as the Neolithic Age, the ancestors of Kunlun Mountain discovered Hetian jade and made it into production tools and decorations. Since the Shang Dynasty, Hetian jade has entered the East on a large scale, becoming the main jade used by the imperial court, and the rulers regard it as a treasure. The Shang Dynasty has developed on a large scale. After Qin Dynasty, it became the main jade material of China jade carving industry, and gradually became the royal jade accompanying the historical process of China. Kings, nobles, and dignitaries throughout the ages regarded Hetian jade as their honorific title and authentic product.

1, and hetian jade-the elite among jade materials. 2. Good processability.

Hetian jade processing is carefully designed according to the quality and color of jade, which is generally divided into four stages: material selection, design, grinding and polishing. Because of its unique texture characteristics, especially its high toughness, Hetian jade is made into precise, regular, neat and smooth products through fine workmanship as much as possible. Therefore, the machinability of Hetian jade is good, and the detail arrangement of Hetian jade is an important symbol of jade fineness. Using hetian jade as a thin tire can better reflect the beauty of heaven and earth. 3, the reputation is far-reaching, renowned at home and abroad.

In the field of gems, Hetian jade is recognized as the first nephrite in the world. Since ancient times, a large number of excellent and numerous artistic treasures have emerged for thousands of years. Jade ornaments in Shang Dynasty, ritual vessels in Zhou Dynasty, jade seal in Qin Dynasty, jade clothes in Han Dynasty, Yu Lian in Tang Dynasty, Jade Girl in Song Dynasty, Yuhai in Yuan Dynasty, Zigang brand in Ming Dynasty and Shanzi carved by Dayu in Qing Dynasty are all rare treasures, and they are all artistic treasures carved by Hetian jade, shining with touching light. Chinese jade carved from Hetian jade is known as "Oriental Art", and is regarded as the most dazzling precious heritage and artistic treasure in the treasure house of Chinese culture with its rich China spirit and distinctive national characteristics.

In particular, due to the export of Hetian jade, a "Jade Road" was formed as early as 6,000 years ago, while the world-famous "Silk Road" is only 1600 years old. As an important post station on these two cultural arteries, Yumenguan should be named after Hetian jade.

The cultural, economic and historical significance of "Jade Road" is far better than the so-called "Silk Road". As an important carrier of the "Jade Road", jade jade is more important than the carrier silk on the so-called "Silk Road". It is an extremely precious commodity and cultural medium, which transcends the limitation of time and space, connects the western regions with the Central Plains, the ancient eastern countries with the western world, and is China's own. He Yuti is an outstanding representative of the spiritual wealth of Chinese jade culture.

1, the spiritual sublimation and cultural creation of Confucian culture to He Youti.

Hetian jade is enduring because it has material properties and advantages that other jade species do not have, and there is also a profound reason, that is, the cultural and spiritual value attached to Hetian jade. Hetian jade is an important material carrier of China's cultural spirit and value. In the long feudal society of China, Confucian culture had the political status of mainstream ideology, so Confucian culture had the most profound and enormous influence on jade culture.

The Shang Dynasty initially completed the process of moralization, religionization and politicization of jade, and Hetian jade became a symbol of morality, customs, gods, power and wealth. In terms of morality, Confucianism needs some material carriers to further publicize their theories, so it summarizes the experience of using Hetian jade in Yin and Shang Dynasties, especially pays attention to the perceptual experience of the ruling class's love for Hetian jade, and uses Confucian moral concepts to compare the various characteristics of Hetian jade's physical properties, from material to spirit, from perceptual to rational, to create theories and endow jade with virtue, that is, jade. "

Confucius endowed jade with "eleven virtues" in the Book of Rites, namely, benevolence, knowledge, righteousness, courtesy, joy, loyalty, faith, heaven, earth, virtue and Taoism. These eleven virtues are actually a complete collection of Confucian moral norms. It corresponds to the material properties of Hetian jade, such as moist, meticulous, millet, long and so on. As the core of China's traditional thought, Confucianism holds that a gentleman should be "better than jade", and Yu Pei is smooth and moist, which can be described as "benevolence"; It is not easy to break, and it will not cut the skin if it is broken, which can be described as "righteousness"; Dressed neatly and orderly, it can be described as "ceremony"; Music can be used to describe its clear and beautiful sound; It can be described as "loyalty" and "Tao" that everyone cherishes, and so on. These virtues are the necessary conditions for a gentleman, so it is inevitable for Yu Pei to maintain a clean and honest life, "a gentleman is not without his death" and "keeping his body as jade". Xu Shen in the Eastern Han Dynasty put forward that jade has five virtues in Shuo Wen Jie Zi. "The beauty of jade has five virtues, tenderness and kindness." Knowing from the outside, it means righteousness. Its sound is soothing, its design is far-listening, and its wisdom is also; Fearless and unyielding, the brave side is also; "clean and honest, but clean." In fact, it refers to the five characteristics of jade: color, texture, texture, hardness and toughness.

Therefore, Confucianism's jade virtue is based on Hetian jade, which has always been respected and authentic. Hetian jade has therefore become the embodiment of gentleman's integrity and the symbol of social morality, and a gentleman is better than jade. "Speaking of a gentleman, he is as gentle as jade, and" would rather die than surrender ". At the same time, in religion, using jade as a sacrifice has become a legal object for secular people to communicate with their ancestors. Politically, it is strictly stipulated that jade should be used from the emperor to officials at all levels. "Zhou Li" stipulates that "jade treats the country with six rewards. "Wang Zhi Zhen Gui, Gong Zhi Huan Gui, Hou Zhi Xin Gui, Zhi Bo Gong Gui, Zi Zhi Gu Gui and Menzhi Pu Bi" all provide strong spiritual support for people's respect, worship, love and respect for jade, and directly affect the grass-roots people to regard jade as the highest standard of material and spiritual life, as well as the reference of beauty, which can be seen from idioms, such as 65,438+020 related to jade.

2. The influence of other cultural ideologies on Hetian jade culture.

Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism have coexisted for a long time in the course of China's civilization and history. In addition to Confucianism, the cultural factors in the other two religions have also joined the construction and creation of jade culture. Taoism regards jade as a spiritual thing and a magical medicine. Ge Hong's "Bao Pu Zi Xian Yao Pian" said that "jade is also a fairy medicine, but it is hard to find one ear", and the "Jade Classic" said: "Those who serve jade will live as long as jade", hoping that "going to Kunlun Mountain to eat jade, living longer than the world, living longer than the sun and the moon and Guang Qi" Buddhism also had an important influence on jade culture, and Beijing TV even listed jade as one of the "seven treasures". From Guanyin, Buddhist ornaments, exquisite pendants and Ruyi in traditional jade articles to a large number of treasures collected in museums, Buddhist culture and themes have become important themes in jade products.

What needs to be emphasized here is that the Buddhist culture in China not only has a material connection with Hetian jade in jade works, but also has a certain spiritual connection with the origin and Hotan area of Hetian jade in historical evolution. Because in history, Khotan was once the center of Mahayana Buddhism, Buddhism spread in the Central Plains of China was not introduced directly from India, but mainly through Khotan in the western regions. In Chinese, the word "monk" is borrowed from Khotan language and the word "shaman" is borrowed from Qiuci language. This shows that China's Buddhist culture and Hetian jade have reached a cultural marriage through the connection of material products and spiritual origins. Fourth, learn more about Hetian jade culture.

The origin of the word "jade";

The word "jade" originated from the oldest Chinese characters, Oracle Bone Inscriptions and Zhong Dingwen in Shang Dynasty.

Chinese characters have created nearly 500 words from jade, and there are countless words composed of jade. The treasures in Chinese characters are all related to jade. The word "treasure" handed down from later generations is a combination of "jade" and "home", because "jade" is privately owned, so it shows its irreplaceable value.

The word "jade" is a beautiful and noble word in the eyes of the ancients. In ancient poems, jade is often used to compare and describe all beautiful people or things. For example, the words used to describe people with jade are jade capacity, jade face, jade girl, slim and graceful, etc. The words used in jade metaphor are jade food, jade food, Yuquan and so on. Idioms composed of jade include beautiful marriage, golden rule, beautiful pearls and jade, and so on. Folk legends and stories about jade, such as He Jiabi, Hong Men Banquet, Nong Yu playing the flute, and mending the goddess of heaven, have many people named their beloved children with jade, such as Jia Baoyu and Lin Daiyu, and how many years have passed since they got tired of reading a touching book?

Xu Shen's interpretation of jade in Shuo Wen Jie Zi in Han Dynasty is: "the beauty of jade." This annotation scientifically expounds the concept of "jade" from two aspects: material (stone) and art (beauty). There is also "like the connection of three jade", that is, the original meaning of jade pictogram is that three beautiful jade pieces run through with a silk rope, which also means that the ancients used jade to symbolize everything, and the "connection of three jade" represents the connection between heaven and earth.

Describe the variety of jade, which can be described as "thousands of agates and thousands of jade".

It shows that the natural beauty of jade is independent of human will, which can be described as "beautiful jade can be met but not sought, and cannot be recovered."