On Ancient Greek Civilization and Ancient Roman Civilization

1. Greece-one of the five cradles of human civilization

Second, the main achievements of ancient Greek culture

The ancient Greece we are talking about is bigger than the present Greece. It includes many islands in Greece, Aegean Sea and Ionian Sea, Asia Minor and some areas along the Black Sea. In fact, unlike the four ancient civilizations, ancient Greece never formed a unified country, which was composed of more than 200 city-states. These city-states generally take a city as the center, including the surrounding areas. Because Greece is mountainous and there are some plains in the middle, it is difficult to form a unified country under the conditions at that time. But they have the same language, religion and lifestyle. Among many city-states, Athens and Sparta are the most powerful and famous, especially Athens. 19 Before the 1970s, the Greek culture known to Europeans was the culture after 1 1 century BC, that is, the culture after Homer's era, especially the culture in the classical period (5th-4th century BC). 19 After the 1970s, German scholar Sheriman,

Archaeological excavations in Asia Minor and southern Greece have achieved amazing results. Later, British archaeologist Dr. Evans bought some small stones in Athens as amulets to be worn by Greek women. He is curious about some symbols carved on the stone. He came to Crete and collected more similar stones, which he concluded were written in ancient Greece. Then he organized 150 people to dig for 9 weeks, and finally dug up the most abundant treasure in modern history research-the legendary Minos Palace. Thousands of pictures and clay tablets have been found in its ruins, and the words depicted on them are exactly the same as those on small stones (similar to those found in China and Oracle Bone Inscriptions, so you can talk about them when you have time). This is what people call linear character type A. Since then, many scholars have made fruitful excavations in Greece, and found another ancient Greek character-linear character B, which was successfully interpreted by British architect Ventry in 1952. These achievements greatly enriched the content of ancient Greek culture and made Greece one of the five cradles of world civilization. Its history can be traced back to 2000 BC, which is roughly equivalent to the establishment of the Xia Dynasty, the first slave country in China. What are the cultural achievements of the ancient Greeks? It can be said to be extensive and profound. We can only talk about what is important here.

& lt& lt Homer's Epic >> This is the first monument in the history of European literature. Legend has it that it was written by Homer, a blind poet, including & gt and>. & lt& lt Iliad >> This is about the last stage of the Trojan War. < Odyssey >> It tells the story of the hardships experienced by the hero Odysseus when he returned to his hometown after the Trojan War. Homer's epic has a wide influence in Europe so far. Marx used to read Homer's epic to his children, and its story was widely known in Europe. The language of epic is not only picturesque, but also has shocking power and profound and meaningful philosophy. What is more commendable is that the humanistic spirit shines from a series of characters created. Epic affirms human dignity, strength and value, the positive significance of human life, struggle and activities, the relationship between freedom and equality and the spirit of struggle. The content of epic has also become the creative source of many writers and artists in the future. & lt& lt Aesop's Fables >> It is said that it was written by Aesop, a Greek slave. Aesop was appreciated by his master because of his cleverness, gained the freedom of life and was allowed to experience everywhere. His extensive knowledge and rich talents enabled Aesop to create wonderful and intriguing stories. & lt& lt tortoise and rabbit race >>,< farmer and snake >>,< fox and grape >>,< crow and fox >> and so on. Many of these stories are formed by anthropomorphic methods, which endow various animals, plants and inanimate objects with human thoughts, words and languages. Some condemn the unreasonable oppression of people by society, some praise the wisdom of working people, and some express their views on nature and society. The language of this story is simple and profound. It laid a solid foundation for later European fable creation. /kloc-France's La Fontaine in the 0/7th century and/kloc-Russia's Clolev in the early 9 th century are deeply loved & gt People all over the world are familiar with it. Ancient Greek drama is very developed, and modern world drama is developed from ancient Greek drama. At first, there was only one actor and a chorus, and this actor also played many roles. Later, the number of actors increased to two, providing props and background design. After that, the number of actors gradually increased, and there were also sets for painting. At that time, the government subsidized the theater goers and selected the Laureate Dramatist every year. Aeschylus's < & ltOrestia >>, Sophocles's << Oedipus >:>, euripides's << Medea >: eternal shining stars in the world literature. The achievements of ancient Greek architecture are outstanding, and their architectural modeling, artistic style and artistic principles have influenced the architectural history of Europe for more than 2,000 years. They are good at using colonnades, building foundations, columns and eaves, etc. They all have a specific format called columns. There were three knights in ancient Greece: the Knights of Dorian, Onek and Corinth. Doric style is heavy and powerful; Ionian style is beautiful and elegant; Corinthian style, slender and gorgeous. The Acropolis, built in the 5th century BC, is the concrete embodiment of the highest achievement of ancient Greece, which is solemn, harmonious, exquisite and hearty.

Scientifically, the ancient Greeks absorbed the heritage of ancient Egypt and ancient Babylon and carried it forward, creating brilliant scientific and technological achievements. Mathematically, Thales, known as the first philosopher and scientist in western history, put forward the principle that the circumference is divided equally by diameter, the two base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal, and the diagonal vertex angles are equal when two straight lines intersect. Pythagoras discovered Pythagorean theorem, which China called Pythagorean theorem. He and his students found and proved that the sum of the internal angles of a triangle is equal to 180 degrees. In particular, the mathematician Euclid systematically sorted out and summarized the mathematical achievements of predecessors, formed a strict elementary geometry knowledge system based on some axioms with meticulous deductive logic, and wrote < < geometric elements > >. After the invention of printing, this book was translated into various languages, which had a great influence on great scientists such as Copernicus, Galileo and Newton. Even Einstein marveled at his rigorous system. Most of the knowledge we have learned about plane geometry comes from this book (how to spread it to China can be expanded). Archimedes, a famous physicist, discovered the buoyancy theorem and judged the purity of crown gold by using the relationship between density, volume and weight of matter. He also perfected the lever principle and invented many fighting machines. His famous saying "Give me a fulcrum and I can move the earth" is full of human confidence and strength. When Roman soldiers broke into Greece and his house, he was addicted to the calculation of a math problem. He asked the Roman soldiers to give him a few more minutes to solve the problem, but he was killed on the spot without permission. He devoted himself to science and put his life and death at risk, which has always been admired by future generations. In medicine, Hippocrates is called "the father of western medicine". His greatest contribution is to make medicine get rid of the domination of witchcraft, treat life with a rational attitude and treat diseases with scientific methods. Starting from clinical practice, he founded the theory of body fluid. He believes that there are four kinds of body fluids in the human body, namely blood, mucus, yellow bile and black bile, which maintain human life and harmonize with each other. In a balanced state, the human body is healthy; If the balance is broken, people will get sick. This theory became the theoretical basis of western medicine. He is not only superb in medical skills, but also more noble in medical ethics. Now, doctors in western countries have to take the Hippocratic oath before practicing, vowing that doctors should think of patients everywhere and make greater efforts for their sacred mission. In astronomy and geography, they put forward the concept that the earth is a round ball, built a model of the universe (Pythagorean school), and used the word "geography" for the first time; According to the principle that the tides in the Indian Ocean are similar to those in the Atlantic Ocean, the theory that the two oceans are connected is put forward, and the earth circle theory is advocated (Eratosthenes). A scientist (Aristak) first put forward the sun-centered theory. He pointed out that if the sun is regarded as the center of the planetary system and the planets revolve around the sun, then all celestial movements will be easy to understand. This is the foresight of genius, the source of Copernicus' thought.

Finally, it is worth mentioning the philosophical achievements of ancient Greece. The word "philosophy" originated from ancient Greece, and its original meaning was "the study of wisdom", because all disciplines were not completely separated from philosophy at that time. Thales once said a famous philosophical saying: "Water is the source of all things", which not only examines the same origin of all things, but also tries to explain nature from itself without resorting to things other than nature. Heraclitus believes that the origin of everything is fire. He believes that the past, present and future will always be an eternal living fire, which burns according to the law and goes out according to the law. The old fire goes out, the new fire burns, and everything is endless. "One can't step into the same river twice" is a famous dialectic saying with far-reaching influence. Democritus, on the other hand, is a master of atomism in ancient Greece. He thinks that the world is unified and natural phenomena can be explained in a unified way-everything in the world is made up of atoms, and atoms are also the same foundation of the world. Due to the inconsistency of atoms in shape, size and quantity, various and colorful things have been formed in the world. The understanding of atom as the basic material unit may be related to the observers of volatilization, odor and evaporation, so there are invisible particle movements in these phenomena. In the distant times, they conceived the atomic world behind the perceptual material world with their own rationality under simple conditions, which provided inspiration for the birth of modern atomism. The cultural achievements of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and other scientific and academic giants marked the unprecedented prosperity of ancient Greek civilization.

Ancient Roman Civilization Section 1 Rome's Conquest of the Mediterranean Region

The political history of Rome is based on Rome's conquest of Italy and even the whole Mediterranean region. In this kind of external expansion

During its development, Rome developed from a city-state to an empire, and its political system also evolved from an aristocratic country to an autocratic monarchy. Rome

The laws and administrative management of the country have also changed accordingly.

The geographical environment of the Mediterranean region and Italy Rome is located in the Tiber Valley in the middle of the Italian peninsula, while Italy is located in.

The center of the area around the Mediterranean. This geographical position was very beneficial to the subsequent expansion of Rome.

There is little difference in climate and vegetation in the Mediterranean basin, and the surrounding three continents, Europe, Asia and Africa, are connected by the sea. estival

Trade winds are strong but not crazy, which is convenient for ships to sail. Coastal islands are good navigation marks. The Mediterranean was conquered by the Romans.

Known as "our sea", it was an important means of transportation for the Roman Empire. Plenty of sunshine and dry summer are good for olives.

The growth of fig and grape, the three main local fruit trees; Olive oil is an important food and daily necessities. Relatively barren soil

Intensive agriculture has been promoted, but animal power, water power and wind power have not been well utilized, and farming is the foundation.

Rely on manpower.

Italy is a superior part of the natural environment in the Mediterranean region. Summer here is cooler and wetter than other places.

; Apennine mountains cross the entire peninsula, and valleys and volcanic ash-covered areas are fertile; Mountain grassland is rich and animal husbandry is developed.

Developed. Compared with France and Britain in northern western Europe, the proportion of arable land in Italy is smaller. copper

And iron are the main mineral resources to meet the needs of tool and weapon manufacturing. The mountainous terrain hinders land traffic,

It also forced the Romans to pay attention to road construction later. There are many passes in the Alps in the north, through which migrating nationalities can enter.

But large-scale foreign invasion did not happen until the late Roman Empire. There was no deep-water port in ancient Italy, but it had a long coastline.

Line, its position in the middle of the Mediterranean and its position as the political center of the Roman Empire still make it a hub of maritime transportation.

Italy before the rise of Rome The history of Italy before the rise of Rome can only be roughly understood through archaeological excavations.

. Human footprints appeared here 200,000 years ago. In 5000 BC, Neolithic farmers began to settle here.

Go home. After experiencing bronzes and bronze culture, Italy entered the Iron Age after 1000 BC, when the north

Indo-European peoples entered the central region of Latin America. In the first half of the 7th century BC, it gradually appeared in Latin America.

There are about 40 polis. These city-states take the patriarchal clan system as the basic unit, and besides the king, there are heads of families.

Senate meetings and citizens' meetings. There are alliances and religious celebrations between the city-States. Rome on the Tiber River.

Later, the country gradually became the leader of the Latin city-state.

The growth of Rome is largely due to the influence of Idalagria culture in northern Latin. Ida of Laglia.

Unknown origin. Since Herodotus, there has been a debate about whether they are indigenous or from Asia Minor. Some modern scholars believe that

Measuring, the ruler of the Lagurians in Ida may be a warrior from Asia in the late 7th century BC, with a high.

Cultural and management level, and the local original Indo-European language family Villaneau Vicki intermarried, forming a new civilization. Aida, mt

Lagria is roughly equivalent to Tuscany today, with many forests and swamps; Many settlements that were later isolated by natural barriers

When it develops into an independent city-state, the tendency of political unity is weak.

The religious ceremony in Idalaglia is basically a kind of divination, and there is also something similar to China's view of Feng Shui. Believe in many gods

Semi-dark and cruel, very different from the bright and happy gods of Greece and Rome. Living people are often considered as victims of offering sacrifices to gods, and

And let them kill each other in a duel, which is the origin of the atmosphere of watching gladiator performances in Rome later. The monarch of every city-state went.

In the 6th and 5th centuries, it was replaced by aristocratic oligarchs, and the status of the middle class also rose. Ida, the city-states of Laglia have their own.

Governance, but there is a loose alliance between them. Ida Laglia characters have not been interpreted so far, only by

It is difficult for archaeological data to have a detailed understanding of the social and economic relations at that time. The nobility obviously enslaved some lower class people to work for them.

Live a luxurious life, but don't know the details of production relations. Hydraulic engineering, copper-iron smelting and metal appliances

The Lagerians in Ida are good at manufacturing and maintain active trade with Greece and Asia.

The Greeks began to emigrate to southern Italy on a large scale at the end of the 8th century BC. They brought olive trees and

Grapes. The Greek alphabet is the prototype of the Latin alphabet. Greek bronzes, pottery, architectural styles and sculptures are of ancient significance.

Like and imitate people. Greece's military strategy and urban construction technology also spread to Italy. Greek city-states fought fiercely against each other,

Their colonies in Italy did not form a strong political and military force. Ida Laglia in 7 BC.

In the first half century, Latin America had great cultural and political influence, but they lacked a unified political system, so

It is impossible to establish a form of rule that can be called an empire there. Ida Laglia attacked the Greek colony in 524 BC.

The beauty of the people's land was frustrated, and the Latin American city-states took the opportunity to rebel. The rise of Rome ended Ada Laglia's hegemony in Latin America.

State.

The origin and growth of Rome The city of Rome is located on the east bank of the Tiber River, near the junction of Latim and Idaraglia. everywhere

This land is fertile enough to feed a large population. The Tiber River leads to the sea, which facilitates trade with foreign countries. Rome is at the crossroads again.

Mouth, so it also controls the land transportation hub in central Italy.

There are many legends about the origin of Rome, and the true story can only be understood through archaeological evidence. According to local people,

Legend has it that the name "Rome" comes from romulus. He and his twin brother Remus are related to Mars, the god of war.

. Romulus was thrown into the Tiber River because he was an illegitimate child. The gods saved him and let a female wolf nurse him. grow up

Later, romulus established the city of Rome. This legend existed at the latest in the 4th century BC. Greece in the 5th century BC.

Horanicus, a Greek writer, provided another explanation about the origin of Rome, thinking that Troy Delysiania was a Roman.

Founder. In the 3rd century AD, the Romans also accepted the idea that Trojans built cities, and compared romulus with Ignace.

A legend is combined together. According to this romanized Greek legend, Ignace drifted to Italy after the fall of Troy.

, was entertained by the local king Latinus, and married his daughter lavinia. Their son canas.

After that, there were 12 kings, among which the two grandchildren of the last king Numitor were romulus and Lemos. Modern examination

Ancient excavations proved that there was no stable and intensive agriculture in Rome until the Iron Age (after 1000 BC).

Pastoral settlements, and Ida Laglia culture has been dominant in the local area until the first half of the 7th century BC, and it is legendary.

It is said that the first Malaysian King of Ida Laglia, Takvin, also gained the throne during this period. Rome in the middle of BC 1 century

Horse writer Varo calculated that the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC. This day was generally accepted by the Romans. The Romans believed him.

In the early days of the People's Republic of China, they were ruled by seven kings, the last three of whom came from Ida Laglia. The second Iraq during the reign of the king

The reform carried out by Seville Tourius, king of Dalalia (in the middle of 6th century BC) is considered to be of great significance to the later Roman politics.

Governance and social structure are of great significance. His reform began with the reorganization of the Roman army.

The earliest Roman army was provided by three Tribbe 1 infantry; The men of every commander of the thousand men's team

Cavalry 1, each 100. Each thousand-man team consists of 10 hundred-man teams, corresponding to each tribe 10 library.

There are 10 clans in each library. At that time, many foreigners in Rome were engaged in commerce and handicrafts and had no citizenship.

There is no obligation to perform military service. Seville abolished three old tribes and established 2 1 new tribes according to the region, putting those

Foreign residents are also included. By 24 1 year BC, there were 35 tribes in Roman cities and villages, and then there were new recruits.

The clothing field is included in the existing tribes. Tribbe replaced curia as the administrative unit. Before and after this period

Infantry also changed from using square shields and spears to using round shields and daggers, and were equipped with helmets and breastplates. The reformed Roman army

/kloc-a team of 0/00 people has 193. Citizens are divided into five classes according to their property. The first-level wealth provides a team of 80 100 people. One of the first-year students

There are 18 knight centaurs in the world. A new type of citizen assembly is organized by a group of 100 people: each group of 100 people first

Get your own majority opinion, and then vote at the conference, with one vote for each team. Knight and first rank 98 votes, a total of 193.

Get a majority of votes. The rich enjoy political privileges, but they do bear heavy military obligations. The above reforms are not thorough.

This was done in Seville, but maybe he did the main work.

In 5 10 BC, the last king Tacvin was expelled by the Roman people, and the city-state monarchy ended.

And replace it with the Republic of China. The reasons and details of this social change are not very clear. To be sure, the king of the royal era

The status is inherently weak, and the monarchy itself is primitive and underdeveloped. The Roman Republic was founded by nobles, and its politics

The political system serves them to a great extent. Fifty aristocratic clans account for only one-tenth of the freemen, but their members are economically

Powerful, closely related to each other in marriage and politics, controlling the main organs of state power. Politics in the early Republic of China

The organization is relatively simple, and the real power is the consul and the Senate. The two consuls served for one year and succeeded the original king.

Power, sitting in an ivory chair, with purple edges on the official clothes, served as a commander in the war like the original king and was guaranteed.

Leaving behind a "fascist" that symbolizes its coercive authority. It turned out that the king's advisory meeting became the Senate of the Republic of China. incumbent

The official is responsible for appointing members of the Senate, calling their meetings and submitting questions to them. Because the consul's term of office is short, the Senate

It gradually changed from an advisory body to a supervisory body, which stipulated the scope of consular powers and influenced their choice of successors. noble

Monopolize the positions of consul and Senate. In theory, two consuls can veto each other's decisions, but in practice, because

Because it is the representative of aristocratic interests, the relationship is very harmonious and there are few conflicts.

Civilians outside the aristocracy refused to tolerate their exclusion from the ruling power. Romania in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.

Ma experienced a storm in which nobles and civilians fought for power and profit. Regarding the process of forming two groups of nobles and civilians in Roman society, there is no

Reliable records have been handed down. Like nobles, civilians also attend civic meetings and perform military service in wartime. They and the nobility

Contradictions involve economic interests and political power. Economically, state-owned land and creditor's rights law are the most repugnant among civilians.

There are two more questions. State-owned land is sometimes distributed to citizens free of charge and sometimes sold to them.

They used it. The aristocratic-controlled * * * countries no longer distribute land to civilians, and they have no money to buy it. Obtained by conquest

State-owned land is generally far away from cities, and civilians have no financial and human resources to occupy and use it. Nobles not only enjoy a lot of state-owned land

The right to use the land, and rarely pay the already insignificant rent, actually turned these lands into their hereditary property.

. Civilians are obliged to perform military service, and only the latter can enjoy the land they conquered with the blood of nobles. Military service burden

Frequently indebted civilians; According to Roman debt law, indebted civilians can be killed by creditors or sold as slaves by creditors.

. Politically, the positions of consuls and temple priests were monopolized by nobles; Was this resolution passed by the civilian assembly?

Have legal effect; A marriage between a commoner and a nobleman is legally considered invalid, and a child born to a commoner woman and a noble man.

Children can only be civilians. Civilians cannot join aristocratic groups through marriage.

A considerable part of the history of the conflict between civilians and nobles has long been legends and myths. The struggle of civilians for their own rights and interests

This achievement has been consolidated by becoming a legal and political system, and thus known to future generations. The political activities of civilians are peaceful.

The way of order. First, five tribunes (later increased to 10) were elected as spokespersons, and they successfully demanded RMB.

The Senate and the consul recognized the inviolability of the tribune and the power to veto the consul's legislative proposals. Therefore, the tribune

It can not only protect civilians, but also exert influence on legislative activities. "Twelve Copper Table Method" (at the end of 450 BC

This is an early political victory for civilians. This written code limited the lawless and tyrannical behavior of the nobility.

. The Kanurea Law in 449 BC allowed civilians and nobles to legally marry. Lisini in 367 BC-

The Sykes Act restricts large-scale real estate, allowing debtors to calculate the interest paid as the cost of paying off debts, but it still does not abolish creditor's rights.

Law. The bill also stipulates that one of the consuls must be a civilian, and some priests must also be civilians. Ancient times and

The ruthless creditor's rights law was abolished after 40 years. According to the Hortensia Act in 287 BC, the General Assembly passed

The resolutions passed are as effective as those of all citizens' meetings. In fact, before 339 BC, the resolution of the civilian meeting was enough.

Energy already has this property. The upper-class civilians have achieved a status comparable to that of the nobility, because of the above-mentioned various bills, both of which

Gradually merged into a new aristocracy.

The victory of civilians expanded the social foundation of the Republic, strengthened the military strength of Rome, and helped the city-state survive the war.

Strive to establish a dominant position in Italy and the Mediterranean region.

Rome established its dominance in Italy and the Mediterranean. The first stage of Rome's history of external expansion was the conquest of Italy.

The second stage is to conquer the western Mediterranean and the eastern Mediterranean. In the second half of 4th century BC, Gaul and northern Italy.

Some Celts went south to attack Rome and left after destroying the city and demanding ransom. The Romans began to chase this disaster.

Gradually establish hegemony in the Italian peninsula by force or negotiation, and first control Latin on the south bank of the Tiber River.

The city conquered Samoans in the middle, and then extended its power to Idaraglia in the north and Greece in the south.

People's city. By the middle of the 3rd century BC, Rome unified Italy south of the Po River by merger or alliance.

Rome established colonies in various places to consolidate its control over vast areas.