European traditional folk building materials

China's architectural system is an independent architectural art characterized by wood structure, which has made brilliant achievements in urban planning, architectural groups, single buildings, artistic treatment of materials and structures. Various roof shapes, cornices, colorful paintings, Zhu Zhu Jinding, indoor and outdoor decorative doors, and garden scenery in traditional architecture fully reflect the skill and appeal of China's architectural art, and mortises and tenons existed in Hemudu culture 7000 years ago. Banpo village is divided into an anteroom and a back room. During the Shang Dynasty, there were tall palaces. Bricks and tiles were used in the Western Zhou Dynasty, with a quadrangle layout. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, architectural drawings were handed down from generation to generation. The indoor and outdoor beams, columns and buckets of Jingyi Taixu Palace are decorated, and murals are painted on the walls. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, wooden structures became more and more mature, with magnificent buildings, rich decorations and beautiful stretches, and huge architectural groups such as Epang Palace and Weiyang Palace appeared. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhist temples and pagodas developed rapidly with various forms, and kissing ornaments appeared on the roof. Glazed tiles used in the Sui and Tang Dynasties were even more magnificent. The halls of Nanchan Temple and Beigao Temple built at that time still exist, attracting worldwide attention. During the Five Dynasties and the Song Dynasty, urban architecture flourished and commerce flourished. Luxury restaurants and shops have their own flying pavilion bars with beautiful styles. Palace gardens and private gardens in Ming and Qing dynasties have been preserved so far, and the buildings are more magnificent, complicated and dignified than those in Song Dynasty. Chinese modern architectural art has been developing and innovating in the practice of inheriting excellent traditions and absorbing the advantages of today's world architectural art.

References:

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During the heyday of Louis XIII and Louis XIV's absolute monarchy from17th century to18th century, French began to advocate classical architectural styles and built many classical buildings. Classical architecture has rigorous modeling, classical columns are widely used, and interior decoration is rich.

The representative works of French classical architecture are large-scale and magnificent palace buildings and memorial square buildings. During this period, the French royal family and powerful ministers built separation halls and gardens, which were imitated by other European countries.

With the popularity of classical architectural styles, Paris established the School of Architecture in 167 1. Most students come from noble families. They looked down on craftsmen and their skills and formed an academic school that advocated classical forms. Academic architecture and education system continued until19th century. The academic school's ideas about the professional skills of architects and the art of architectural composition have dominated the architectural cause in western Europe for more than 200 years.

The representative works of French classical architecture include the east facade of the Louvre in Paris, the Palace of Versailles and the new church of the Paris Hospital for the Disabled. Versailles not only created a new style of the palace, but also was imitated by European countries at that time in planning, design and gardening art.

The new church of the wounded hospital, also known as the new church for disabled soldiers, is a monument of the army in Louis XIV period and a typical classical building in France17th century. The new church is connected with the southern end of the old basilica church. The plane is square, and the top of the center is covered with a dome of three shells. The appearance is parabolic and slightly convex, and the lighting pavilion used in the Renaissance is added at the top. The space under the dome is a Greek cross with four arms of equal length and four circular prayer rooms at four corners. The facade of the new church is compact, and the top of the dome is 106.5 meters from the ground, which is the center of the whole building. The square church itself looks like the base of the dome, which adds to the solemn atmosphere of the building.

/kloc-in the first half and middle of the 8th century, the number of national and commemorative large-scale buildings decreased significantly compared with that of/kloc-in the 7th century. Instead, there are a lot of comfortable and quiet urban houses and small and exquisite country villas. In these houses, beautiful salons and comfortable living rooms have replaced luxurious halls. In terms of architectural appearance, although the baroque church style was quickly imitated by other buildings, the Paris Institute of Architecture was still the base camp of classicism in this period.

The famous buildings at that time included Harmony Square (also translated as Concorde Square) and the downtown square of Nancy City. The latter consists of three squares on the vertical axis: the government square in the north is rectangular; To the south is Stanislas Square, rectangular; In the middle is a long and narrow square. Square group is semi-closed, and its spatial combination is diverse and harmonious. The trees, fountains, statues, fences, bridges, Arc de Triomphe and buildings in the square are also in harmony.

Characteristic forms and styles with aesthetic value in China architecture. From the pre-Qin period to the middle of19th century, it was basically a closed and independent system, with little change in style for more than 2,000 years, which was generally called the ancient architectural art in China.

/kloc-After the mid-9th century, with the change of social nature and the emergence of a large number of foreign buildings, especially western buildings, China's architecture has had more contacts and exchanges with the world's architecture, and its architectural style has undergone tremendous changes, which is generally called modern architectural art in China.

Ancient architectural art in China

China's ancient architectural art matured in feudal society. It is a unique art system with the longest history, the widest distribution area and the most obvious style. It is mainly composed of wooden buildings of Han nationality, including excellent buildings of various ethnic minorities. China's ancient architecture has a direct influence on Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese ancient architecture, and it also has an influence on Europe after17th century.

Artistic feature

Compared with European ancient architectural art, China ancient architectural art has three basic characteristics:

The unity of aesthetic value and political and ethical value. Buildings with high artistic value also play a role in maintaining and strengthening social, political and ethical systems and ideology.

② Rooted in profound traditional culture, it shows a distinct humanistic spirit. All the elements of architectural art, such as scale, rhythm, composition, form, characters and style, are based on the aesthetic psychology of contemporary people and can be appreciated and understood by people, without ups and downs and strange and inexplicable images.

③ Overall and comprehensive. Almost all the outstanding architectural works in ancient times mobilized all the factors and techniques that might constitute architectural art at that time, forming a whole image. From the overall environment to the single house, from the external sequence to the internal space, from the color decoration to the affiliated art, every part is not dispensable. If one of them is removed, the overall effect will be damaged.

Although there are many types of ancient buildings in China, they can be summarized into four basic styles.

(1) solemn commemorative style. Most of them are embodied in ritual sacrificial buildings, mausoleum buildings and religious buildings with special meanings. It is characterized by simple group combination, prominent subject image and symbolic significance, and has some special provisions on the scale, shape and significance of the whole building. For example, the Ming Cheng Hall in ancient times, the emperor's mausoleum, large altars, and the King Kong Throne, the Ring Altar and the Giant Buddha Pavilion in Buddhist architecture.

2 elegant and gorgeous court style. It is mostly reflected in palaces, mansions, yamen and general Buddhist temples and Taoist temples. It is characterized by rich sequence combinations, clear priorities, and appropriate size combinations of buildings in the group, which meet people's normal aesthetic standards; Single-seat building has strict modeling proportion, appropriate scale and gorgeous decoration.

③ Friendly and pleasant residential style. Mainly reflected in general housing, including halls, shops and other buildings that people use most often. Its characteristics are that the sequence combination is closely combined with life, and the scale is pleasant without twists and turns; Introverted architecture, simple modeling and exquisite decoration.

④ Free and euphemistic garden style. Mainly reflected in private gardens, including some royal gardens and mountain temples. It is characterized by rich spatial changes, eclectic scale and form of buildings, elegant colors and exquisite decoration; More importantly, the building is integrated with flowers, trees, mountains and rivers, and natural scenery is integrated into the building. The above four styles are often embodied in a group of buildings, such as princes' mansions and some temples, including palace, residence and garden, while imperial tombs include memorial and palace.

Local national style

China has a vast territory, diverse natural conditions and a very closed region (especially ethnic minority areas and mountainous areas). Therefore, the buildings of various places and nationalities have some special styles, which can generally be summarized into the following eight categories:

① Northern style. It is concentrated in the vast plain area from the north of Huaihe River to the south of Heilongjiang. The group is regular, the courtyard is large, but the scale is appropriate; The architectural shape is not undulating, the house is low and flat, and the roof curve is flat; Multi-purpose bricks and tiles, large wood structure materials, relatively simple decoration. The general style is cheerful and generous.

② Northwest wind. It is concentrated in the Loess Plateau from the west of the Yellow River to Ningxia, Gansu. The courtyard is very closed, the house is very low, the roof slope is low and gentle, and quite a few buildings use flat roofs. Bricks and tiles are rarely used, adobe or rammed earth walls are used, and wooden decoration is simpler. In this area, there are often cave buildings, including pit kilns and peace vouchers kilns. The general style is simple. However, there are many mosques in Hui inhabited areas, which are tall, steep in roof, luxuriant in decoration and strong in color, which are obviously different from ordinary folk buildings.

③ Jiangnan style. It is concentrated in the river network area in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. The group is dense and the courtyard is narrow. There are many large and medium-sized groups (big houses, halls, shops, temples, ancestral halls, etc.). ) in the town, there are buildings; Small buildings (ordinary houses and shops) are free and flexible. The roof slope is steep, the wing angle is high, the decoration is exquisite and rich, and there are many carvings. The overall style is beautiful and dexterous.

④ Lingnan style. Concentrated in the mountainous and hilly areas of the Pearl River Basin. The building plane is relatively regular, the courtyard is small, the house is tall, the doors and windows are narrow, there are many volcanic walls, the roof slope is steep, and the wing angle is inclined. Township buildings are dense and closed. Decoration, sculpture and painting are rich and complex, with fine techniques. The general style is light and delicate.

⑤ Southwest wind. It is concentrated in the southwest mountainous areas, and a considerable number of ethnic groups such as Zhuang, Dai, Yao and Miao live there. More houses are built on hillsides, which are dry column buildings and overhead floors. Plane and modeling are quite free, and rarely appear in groups. Structural members such as beams and columns are exposed, and only slab walls or floor mats are used as maintenance barriers. The roof curve is soft, dragging for a long time, and the eaves are far away, covered with shingles or straw. Not very particular about decoration. The overall style is free and flexible. Among them, the Dai Buddhist temple in southern Yunnan is huge in space and richly decorated. The shape of the pagoda is similar to that of Myanmar, and the national style is very distinctive.

6 Tibetan style. It is concentrated in the vast grasslands and mountainous areas where Tibetans live in concentrated communities, such as Tibet, Qinghai, Gannan and northern Sichuan. Herdsmen live in brown rectangular tents. The villagers live in bunkers, mostly small courtyard-style wooden buildings with 2-3 floors, with bread-made stone walls outside and flat-topped walls above. The doors and windows on the stone wall are very narrow, with black trapezoidal window covers outside the window and decorative lines on the top eaves, which are very expressive. There are many temples, all built on high ground. They are tall and have strong colors. They also use thick walls and flat roofs, and highlight a small number of slopes at key locations. The overall style is solid and heavy.

⑦ Mongolian customs. Concentrated in the grassland areas where Mongolian people live in compact communities. Herdsmen live in a round felt bag (Mongolian yurt), and the big felt bag of the nobility can reach 10 meter in diameter, with columns inside and gorgeous decoration. □ Ma Temple embodies the style of Mongolian architecture, comes from the prototype of Tibetan □ Ma Temple, and absorbs the architectural artistic techniques of Hui and Han nationalities in the surrounding areas. It is both heavy and gorgeous.

⑧ Uygur style. Concentrated in Xinjiang Uygur residential areas. The exterior of the building is fully enclosed, with a flat roof, and the internal courtyard is friendly in scale, with free plane layout and green embellishment. There is a spacious veranda in front of the house, and there are detailed colored wood carvings and plaster decorations indoors and outdoors. The overall style is simple and monotonous outside, flexible and exquisite inside. Mosque and Ayatollah cemetery are the most concentrated places of architectural art, with huge volume, towering towers, rich and exquisite brick carving, wood carving and gypsum decoration. It also adopts an arched coupon structure, which is full of curve rhythm.

Times style

Because the function and material structure of ancient buildings in China have not changed much for a long time, the main factor that forms the styles of different times is the difference of aesthetic tendency; At the same time, due to the close relationship between ethnic groups and regions in ancient society, once it is impacted by foreign cultures, or the cultures of ethnic groups in various regions have undergone a sharp blending, it will also promote the artistic style to change. According to these two points, the architectural art after Shang and Zhou Dynasties can be divided into three typical styles of the times:

① Qin and Han styles. During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, some important artistic features of China architecture were initially formed, such as square courtyard, axisymmetric layout, wooden beam frame structure system, single shape composed of roof, house body and pedestal, etc. The roof accounts for a large proportion in the facade. However, there are also regional and time differences in the architecture of Shang and Zhou Dynasties. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the feudal lords were separated, and the architectural style was not uniform because of different cultures. Generally speaking, it can be summarized into two styles, namely, the northern style of the Central Plains dominated by Qi and Jin and the Jianghuai style dominated by Chu and Wu. Qin unified the whole country, concentrated the cultures of various countries in Guanzhong, and Han inherited Qin culture, so the national architectural styles tended to be unified. The styles of Qin and Han Dynasties are mainly represented by capitals, palaces, tombs and ritual buildings. Its characteristics are: the division of capital cities is regular, and residential alleys and markets are closed with high walls; Palaces and tombs are large groups, and the main body is tall and heavy terraced buildings; Most of the important monomers are cross-axis commemorative, with huge scale and outstanding image; The roof is large and the curve is not obvious, but the eaves have "fallen"; Sculpture has many colors and decorations, complex themes, exaggerated shapes and strong colors; Important buildings pursue symbolic meaning. Although there are many religious contents, they are all understandable. The architecture of Qin and Han Dynasties laid the rationalism foundation of China architecture, with clear ethical content, smooth layout and neat composition, and at the same time showed a simple, rich, clear and strong artistic style.

② Sui and Tang style. The Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties were a period of great changes in China's architectural style. The gentry of the Central Plains went south, and the northern minorities entered the Central Plains. With the great ethnic integration, the profound Central Plains culture was introduced to the south, which also affected the north and northwest. Buddhism got unprecedented development in the Southern and Northern Dynasties. The imported Buddhist culture has had a great influence on almost all traditional literature and art, increasing the types and means of expression of traditional art and changing the original style. At the same time, the literati's life interest in seclusion in the mountains, the appearance of pastoral landscape poems, and the development of beautiful scenery in the south of the Yangtze River formally formed the aesthetic thought and basic style of China gardens, and also continued the romantic artistic conception.

The national unity and frequent exchanges with the western regions in the Sui and Tang Dynasties promoted the cultural and artistic exchanges among many ethnic groups. Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, the traditional rational spirit has blended with Buddhism, the exotic customs of the western regions, and the romantic sentiment since the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and finally formed a prosperous Tang style with rationality and romance intertwined. Its characteristics are: the capital is magnificent and square; The sequence of large groups such as palaces and temples. Broad and stretched, with a large spatial scale; The building has rich modeling, uneven outline and gorgeous decoration; Buddhist temples, pagodas and cave temples are extremely rich in scale, form and color, showing a fresh look of close integration of Chinese and foreign cultures.

③ Ming and Qing styles. From the Five Dynasties to the Song Dynasty, the urban commodity economy in China feudal society developed greatly, and the content of urban life and people's aesthetic tendency also changed significantly, which also changed the artistic style. During the Five Dynasties, Ten Kingdoms, Song Dynasty, Liao, Jin and Yuan Dynasties, the cultures and arts of various ethnic groups and regions in China exchanged and merged again. The development of Tibet and Mongolia and the absorption of Arab culture in the Yuan Dynasty added fresh blood to traditional culture. The Ming Dynasty reunified the whole country after the Yuan Dynasty, and finally formed a unified multi-ethnic country in the Qing Dynasty. China architecture finally formed its last mature style in the heyday of the Qing Dynasty (18th century). Its characteristic is that the city is still square in specifications, but the closed alleys and markets in the city have become open streets, shops facing the street and lively markets; There are many scenic spots in or around the city, and there are many places for citizens to visit; Important buildings are completely stereotyped and standardized, but the group order forms are diverse and the methods are rich; The quality and artistic level of folk buildings and buildings in minority areas have generally improved, forming a variety of styles of various regions and ethnic groups; A large number of private and royal family forests appeared, the gardening art flourished unprecedentedly, and the gardening technology finally matured. In a word, Shengqing architecture inherited the rational spirit and romantic mood of the previous generation, and finally formed a mature typical style of China architectural art according to the unique laws of architectural art-graceful and generous, rigorous and elegant, clear mechanism and full of human touch.

Qin and Han Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties, Ming and Qing Dynasties, basically the same time interval. They are the three periods of national unity and national integration, and also the representative dynasties of the three stages of feudal society. As an architectural art that actively and comprehensively reflects life, the contents contained in these three times styles obviously go far beyond the scope of pure art; The typical significance of architectural art style and its reflection function obviously go far beyond the architectural art itself.

Chinese modern architectural art

Modern Chinese architectural art was formed with the disintegration of feudal society and the introduction of western architecture. Its development is directly related to the social system, mode of production, lifestyle and aesthetic taste at various stages. Mainly as follows:

(1) Traditional buildings are still dominant in number, but due to

The new aesthetic taste has changed the architectural style and some artistic techniques.

(2) Modern industrial production and new social life dominated by public activities have produced new architectural types.

(3) New materials, new structures and new processes also need corresponding new forms.

(4) The abolition of feudal hierarchy and the change of social system have fundamentally shaken many important aesthetic values on which traditional architectural art depends, and the social function of architectural art has changed, which requires the creation of new forms that can reflect new aesthetic values and adapt to new social functions.

⑤ There are new contradictions among traditional aesthetic psychology, new aesthetic value and new social function. Whether and how to embody traditional forms in new buildings has become the core issue of modern architectural aesthetics and artistic creation.

Faced with the complex background of the above social and architectural changes, modern architecture in China presents some new artistic features:

The gardens and decorative arts of traditional buildings have a new style. In traditional architecture, gardens and decorative arts are the most sensitive parts due to the change of aesthetic taste. /kloc-After the middle of the 9th century, most of the gardens in the south of the Yangtze River, represented by Suzhou, and the gardens in the north, represented by Beijing, have been transformed and rebuilt. Their common tendency is that the proportion of buildings is greatly increased, the space is tortuous and changeable, and the decoration is complex and exquisite, and quite a few of them become cumbersome. Architectural decoration is generally carved in a large area, with gorgeous colors, expensive materials, expanded themes and meticulous techniques. There are also some baroque and rococo techniques in the west, and some composers and artists are also influenced by them.

Highlight the types and styles of architecture.

At the beginning, most of the new buildings that appeared in modern times directly copied similar western buildings, and most western buildings had a set of basic stereotypes. At that time, there were colonialism, classical revival, Gothic revival, eclecticism and so on. From Harbin to Hong Kong, from Qingdao to Kashgar, institutions, banks, shopping malls, halls, apartments, houses, schools and so on. , all marked their own content in the form of basic stereotypes, but the type is the same. It rarely shows the unique local national characteristics, and even appears the phenomenon that the northern buildings are covered with shutters (colonial style) and the southern buildings are fireplaces (classical revival style). However, after the creation of national forms in the 1920s and 1930s, most of them also adopted the official architectural style of a certain period in ancient times (mainly in the Qing Dynasty), making the national architectural forms in Guangzhou not much different from those in Beijing. Only after the 1980s did we pay more attention to local characteristics, that is, the so-called local architectural style.

Single building focuses on the appearance and modeling.

Modern architecture breaks the closed and introverted traditional architectural aesthetic concept, pays attention to expressing spatial artistic conception, and highlights the public and open ornamental function, which is consistent with the aesthetic concept of expressing physical modeling in western architecture. The artistic form of modern architecture in China contains two kinds of contents. First, some large and memorable buildings still attach great importance to the social value of plastic arts, and the aesthetic function requires a strong political and ethical content, that is, to express certain spiritual significance in a specific form. For example, banks and customs often adopt solemn and luxurious western classical forms to show their strong financial resources; Some government agencies and memorial buildings absorb traditional forms to show the spirit of inheriting traditional culture and carrying forward the quintessence of the country. Secondly, most civil buildings generally only start from aesthetic taste, on the one hand, they pursue fashion novelty, and at the same time, they are influenced by traditional aesthetic taste. /kloc-from the end of 0/9 to the beginning of the 20th century, foreign-style storefronts, foreign schools, foreign theaters, and urban alleys were all in the form of the so-called combination of Chinese and Western. In the future, it will directly adopt the more popular forms in the west; After the 1980s, the pursuit of local flavor has emerged, which is consistent with the aesthetic taste of the contemporary public.

Urban environment and architectural groups highlight openness. The rapid change of modern urban functions has had a fundamental impact on traditional environmental art, and the original group sequential art and environmental scale are far from being able to adapt to the new functions, so a brand-new group art came into being. First of all, different cities and blocks have different requirements for openness and publicity, and there are different groups with different personalities and styles, and their artistic images are very distinct, such as the embassy district in Beijing, the administrative districts of Qingdao, Dalian and Harbin, the financial and commercial districts and high-grade residential districts in Shanghai, Tianjin and Guangzhou, the government agencies in Nanjing and Changchun, and the new commercial districts in major cities. Secondly, with the input of modern urban planning theory, the art of group composition of cities and blocks has also been introduced, which has made some cities and blocks appear new styles. At first, it was the construction of new small blocks such as German, Russian, British and Japanese, and later it was extended to the conscious overall management of the whole city. From the beginning of the 20th century to the 1930s, major cities in China carried out new planning, and most of them paid attention to the new composition of environmental art and the design of architectural space sequence, especially the planning of Shanghai and Nanjing in 1929 ~ 1930 and the planning of the new capital (Changchun) of the puppet Manchukuo in 1939. Since the 1950s and 1960s, large-scale urban construction has mushroomed, and the artistic methods of expressing urban personality in group environment have begun to mature, such as the renovation of Tiananmen Square in Beijing and the development of the northern new district in Guangzhou. After the 1980s, the construction of emerging towns paid more attention to the value of group art. Satellite towns and residential quarters in big cities such as Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shanghai, Tianjin and Beijing, as well as many famous historical and cultural cities, all had outstanding personality characteristics and artistic expression.

The style of the times changes rapidly. From the middle of19th century to the present, the architectural style has changed rapidly, far exceeding that of ancient times. At the same time, there are both general types that develop in parallel with western architectural styles and special types that are restricted by local social culture in China. Judging from the artistic features, the latter undoubtedly has more typical aesthetic value, that is to say, whether and how new content, old form and Chinese and foreign architectural forms can be combined has always been the main line of modern architectural style changes. Seeking the way of combining the style of the times with the national style has always been the theme of architectural art creation.

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In the wave of world architectural development, Japanese architecture is undoubtedly eye-catching. Japanese contemporary architecture, as a product of the combination of economy, culture and technology, has created epoch-making works in the history of architecture. It seems that Japanese contemporary literature, art and music have not achieved as high achievements as Japanese contemporary architecture. The architectural circles in China have been paying close attention to the development trend of Japanese architectural circles, and have also achieved many research results. On Japanese Architecture by Academician Ma (China Building Industry Press, 1999 edition) is an important work in this field.

The Essays on Japanese Architecture includes a brief analysis of Japanese architectural culture ―― absorption and creation, the fourth wave of Japanese architectural internationalization, and other weighty long papers, as well as special studies on Japanese female architects in Zhang Jihe, Kurokawa and Geqin Kenzo, as well as issues such as Field Museum in Japan, Kaili Palace and its renovation in Japan, Japanese rural landscape, Wright and Japan. The content is very rich, showing the author's profound knowledge. The most attractive thing about this book is, of course, the author's wonderful exposition of the pace of modern Japanese architecture and the new development of the new era. Ma believes that Japan has a distinctive and strong traditional culture, an inherent and unique architectural concept, and also has the tolerance and absorption of foreign cultures. There are many theories and schools in Japan in terms of creative methods. For example, the older generation architect Fujimura has always kept a certain distance from modern architecture. Ge Qinxian-san, on the other hand, has been committed to the modern architectural movement in Japan, making it gradually occupy a dominant position in the Japanese architectural world; Isozaki's new visual language is to find out the language he thinks is suitable in the context of the world; Kurokawa Zhang Ji wanted to express the theme of modern Japan in oriental thought; Tadao Ando's simplest fair-faced concrete texture embodies low skill-high manual skill. These architects have different positions and methods, and there are three main viewpoints: one is to study and refine Japanese characteristics and then realize them by modern methods. The second is the pursuit of "intangible" universality, that is, how to express the spirit of Japan in an ambiguous form. The third is a new compromise method, but sometimes it is completely Japanese style at first glance, and it is only superficial. In actual creation, Japanese architects often waver and hesitate between these viewpoints, trying to find a new combination point and a new way out.

The "internationalization of Japanese architecture" discussed in this book is also an issue of interest to readers. From the second half of 1980s to the beginning of 1990s, there was an unprecedented "bubble economy" in Japan, and there was a short-lived building boom. Foreign architects, especially European and American architects, flooded into the Japanese architectural market, which was followed by the "fourth wave" of Japanese architectural internationalization (as Suzuki Hiroshi, a Japanese architectural historian, put it). In this book, Ma discusses the fourth wave of Japanese architectural internationalization and analyzes the profound external and internal reasons. From world-class masters to rising stars, from architectural design to interior design, from Europe to the United States, the most striking masters, such as Graves, Peter eisenmann, Qu Mi and I.M. Pei in the United States, Foster, Rogers and Sterling in Britain, piano and Rossi in Italy, and Berta in Switzerland, have left their works in Japan, which shows that Japan has become the center and hot spot of countless architectural activities in the world. This wave, as Suzuki Hiroshi thought, pursues a kind of "contemporariness", that is, it is both imported and the same level as other countries, and it is the "equivalence" between Japanese architecture and foreign architecture. Ma, on the other hand, thinks that the degree of "equality" has not been fully reached, and the introduction itself is a kind of learning, which means paying a certain price. This wave will have a far-reaching impact on Japanese architecture. There are complex contents between this foreign architectural culture and Japanese native architectural culture. They not only exist in a certain period of time, but also have fierce conflicts, thus causing changes in the overall structure of the Japanese architectural system.

"Stones from other mountains can attack jade". The problems encountered by Japanese architectural circles in the process of absorption and creation are also worthy of consideration by China architectural circles. With the mainstream of western architectural culture, Japanese architectural circles have made a strong response, and Japanese architectural culture has therefore become an important part of contemporary world architecture. Ge Tan, Shinichi Isozaki and Tadao Ando have also become internationally renowned architects. Although China struggled for a long time, it seems that it failed to play a major role in the international arena. Throughout the 20th century, I am afraid that Dai Nianci is the only China architect who can leave his name in the history of world architecture. He is a classicist with a conservative tendency ("conservative" here refers to a cultural attitude, not a derogatory sense). However, the architects who tried to create modern architecture in China failed to solve the worldwide problems, so they were ignored by international architects. Architects who pursue innovation sometimes end up with "brave sacrifice". Facing the current situation of architecture in China, the development of Japanese architecture should be worth pondering.

References:

Title: Japanese Architectural Essays (Academic Series of Beijing Architectural Design and Research Institute)