What period in history was the Chu and Han cultures?

Chu culture is also a long-established regional culture in the pre-Qin era, and in its early years, it was also an ancient national culture (as was the earlier Qin culture). Chu culture, chronologically speaking, is with the development of the southern vassal state - Chu matured. In terms of space, it spread to a wide area as the territory of the state of Chu continued to expand during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Like Qin culture, Chu culture also has its own distinctive features, it has a strong romanticism and mythological colors, advocating freedom, passion, good imagination, good songs and dances, but also believe in ghosts and shrines, heavy God thick witch, the taste of primitive culture is very strong.

The birth and great development of Chu culture was in the Jianghan area, which belongs to the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. During the Spring and Autumn period, the state of Chu had aspirations to advance northward, but encountered strong containment from the northern powers Jin and Qi, who regarded it as a barbarian. As a result, Chu switched its strategic goals to eastward and southward expansion. By the early years of the Warring States period, the state of Chu was expanding vigorously to the east, basically occupying the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, with its northern border approaching the Yellow River, and the former lands of Wu and Yue in the east, which belonged to the Wu-Yue cultural zone, already belonged to it. In the same period, its southern boundary also reached or crossed the Nanling Mountain.

However, the state of Chu was again seriously threatened by the western power Qin. In the late reign of King Huai of Chu (328-299 BC), Chu lost its northwestern border to Qin's diplomatic frauds and military incursions. Later, the situation worsened, and the capital city of Chu, Ying (present-day Jingzhou, Hubei), was lost. In the late Warring States period, the western border of Chu moved eastward again and again, and its political, economic, and cultural center moved to the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. At the same time, there was also an eastward shift in the center of gravity of Chu culture. This change can be easily seen from the historical records. On the one hand, the capital of the state of Chu was first moved from Ying to Chen (present-day Huaiyang, Henan Province), then to Juyang (said to be north of present-day Fuyang, Anhui Province, or not far from Chen), and then to Shouchun (present-day Shouxian, Anhui Province). The political center of Chu was moved to the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. At the same time, Chu destroyed Ju in the first [44] year, Yue in the first 306 years, and Lu in the first 256 years, pushing its power to the eastern coastal area. Chu's aristocrat Huang She (Chun Shen Jun) had his cognizance on the east side of the river on the coast of the Great Sea, and the eastern border of Chu reached the line of Xu, Si, Zou and Lu, where the inhabitants began to call themselves the Chu people. Later, in the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, Liu Bang changed the title of Han Xin, King of Qi, to King of Chu, on the grounds that "Han Xin, King of Qi, was accustomed to the customs of Chu"? [Han Xin, a native of Huaiyin (southwest of present-day Qingjiang City, Jiangsu Province), was appointed king of Chu in Xiapi (northwest of present-day Suining City, Jiangsu Province), which means that, as early as in the late Warring States period, the geographical concept of Chu was not focused on the area of the Jianghan River, but rather the area between the Jianghuai River and the Huaihuai River, which is close to the sea.

The most impressive thing about the development of the world in the late Warring States period is the two eastward advances of a "military" and a "civilization", the former being the eastward military offensive of the Qin army, and the latter being the eastward graduation of the Chu culture, whose influence expanded from the middle reaches of the Yangtze River to the eastern coastal areas. Its influence expanded from the middle reaches of the Yangtze River to the eastern coastal areas. In just a few decades, the eastern coast of Zoulu Wu Yue line, has been the world of Chu culture, since then, to "Chu" symbols in this area of the crown of all, does not seem to have been the local residents of the serious resentment and strong resistance.

The most prominent figures between the Qin and Han dynasties, Xiang Yu and Liu Bang, have shown distinctive colors of the Chu culture. Xiang Yu had his own reasons, his grandfather Xiang Yan was a famous general of the Chu state, and thus he could not forget his homeland; while Liu Bang lived in the Xu Si area, which was originally far away from the center of the Chu state in the Jiang Han Plain, but by the middle and late Warring States period, the power of the Chu state had already reached the territory of Zou Lu, and the area was soon "Chuized". Liu Bang good chu sound, chu dance, chu clothes, mouth is also very authentic chu rhetoric, can be called a chu culture fan. According to the record, "Pei people's language at the beginning of the sound are said 'its'. 'Its', Chu language, Gaozu began to ascend the throne, taught to say 'its', and then thought it was common"? [7]. It can be seen, Xu, Surabaya area in the language is also influenced by the Chu language, and the original non-"Chu people" Liu Bang, this is very pleased, and enthusiastic to promote.

Between Chu and Han, folk music Chu sound. In this regard, Lu Xun believes that: "cover the Qin destruction of the six countries, the four sides of the resentment, and the Chu especially angry, the potential of the three households will be dead Qin, so the Jianghu impassioned people, and then to the sound of the Chu as Shang." ? [8] This to explain the Chu culture of the high, certainly reasonable, but must see, Chu culture in the eastern coastal region of the long-term immersion, has long been a significant effect, is the "Chu sound" is a deeper reason. The anti-Qin struggle began in "Chu", Chen Sheng set the state name as "Chu" and "Zhang Chu" as the political program. Qin Ershi also called Chen Sheng and others "Chu garrison soldiers"? [9]. Xiang Yu called himself "King of Western Chu", but his political banner was still "Chu". Liu Bang succeeded Chen Sheng and others, and he was once appointed by Xiang Yu, the king of Western Chu. Although he later defeated Xiang Yu, he was not ashamed of the name "Chu".

The Western Han Dynasty was established in such a strong atmosphere of Chu culture. The cultural characteristics of the early Han were indeed the expression of the basic features of the Chu culture. In the early Han Dynasty, the guiding political ideology was the art of Huang-Lao, on which "Huang" was based, and "Lao", or Lao Tzu, was originally from Chu.

However, despite the fact that the sound of Chu was so high at the beginning of the Han Dynasty, Han culture is not equal to Chu culture. Han culture is not a wholesale inheritance of any culture and simple modeling, it is a full range of cultural absorption and abandonment after the renewal and creation, including the Qin culture and Chu culture of inheritance and transformation. The Western Han Dynasty, while politically replacing the Qin Dynasty, absorbed the Chu culture, but it did not completely abandon the Qin culture, but also inherited and transformed it. The author agrees with Mr. Yuan Zhongyi's point of view: "After the annexation of the six states in Shandong and the establishment of the unified dynasty, Qin culture spread to the whole country, and became the basis of the later brilliant Han culture"? [10]. Although the existence of the Qin Dynasty was very short, Qin culture was just a flash in the pan, but the Qin culture is a long-term accumulation of energy, it has the content of the amazing expansion and innovation, so it is not because of the existence of a short period of time and a flash of time, on the contrary, a considerable part of the content of the transfer to the Han culture, Han culture has become an important ingredient of the culture, this is a kind of cultural shell to survive.

Certainly, Han culture is not Qin culture, but it is not Chu culture either. Han culture is a new comprehensive new culture is not directly from a single culture, but inherited a variety of cultures and formed. Whether compared with Qin or Chu culture, it is more open, more inclusive, richer in content and more ambitious.

The Han Dynasty, like the Qin Dynasty, was also a regime full of pioneering spirit and grandeur. Compared with the Qin culture, at least the following qualities of the Han culture have not changed fundamentally:

One of the most basic features of both the Qin culture and the Han culture is that they have the same political and institutional culture, and the political culture is one of the elements of the culture, and the political culture is one of the elements of the culture. culture is above all and dominates all cultural elements [11].

These two cultures have basically the same political and institutional culture system. For the first time in Chinese history, the Qin dynasty established a centralized, authoritarian political rule that reached down to the grassroots of society and was strictly bound to every family and every individual. This is often referred to as the "Qin System". The Han Dynasty basically inherited this whole system. The so-called "Han Dynasty inherited the Qin system" mainly refers to this political inheritance.

"As for Gaozu, he had the four seas, and Shusuntong was quite a bit of a gainer and a loser, but he generally followed the Qin system. Since the title of the Son of Heaven, down to the bureaucrats and palace official name, few changes"? [12]. That is to say, the Western Han system of the Qin system have cause and leather, and the side of inheritance is the main. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, the supreme ruler is still called the emperor, the system of officials remains largely unchanged, the government's operating mechanism is not very different, the emperor, the behavior of the hundred officials is also basically the same. Comparing the psychology and behavior of Liu Che, the Emperor of Han Dynasty, with that of Qin Shi Huang, we can see more clearly the similarities and differences between Han culture and Qin culture.

Secondly, the simplicity of the Qin culture, the Han culture has been largely inherited. The Qin culture was characterized by the construction of large palaces and courts, and the Han culture was basically the same. Han Gaozu just gained power, the situation has not yet stabilized, Liu Bang himself is still in the four directions and running, and stayed in Guanzhong Xiangguo Xiao He, in Chang'an built a magnificent Weiyang Palace, the scale of which even as the emperor of the Liu Bang also think too much. But Xiao He's explanation for this is: "and the son of heaven to the four seas for the appropriate, non-magnificent not to heavy Wei"? [13], so expressed this cultural psychology is the potential performance of Qin culture. When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty, he also made a great deal of palace and garden, the scale of which was no less than that of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Wudi for his favorite young general Huo Zaiwei repair tomb "like Qilian Mountain", the tomb of the stone carvings, but also is huge and the style of thick and simple, which and the Qin people's pursuit of beauty, is basically the same.

Third, heavy ghosts and gods, seeking different effects (longevity, etc.), strong superstitious colors, although no developed religion, but there is a religious fanaticism, which is also similar to the Qin culture, Han culture. Han Wu Di's good ghosts and gods, both like the Chu people, but also like the Qin people, on the surface of many places like the Chu people, but in terms of its big action, is closer to the Qin people for.

If the observation of traditional Chinese culture focuses on the political culture, especially the institutional culture, I think we should be sure of the basic conclusion that "the main body of Han culture is Qin culture" and that "in this sense, Qin culture is indeed the cornerstone of Chinese culture for the past two thousand years". the cornerstone of Chinese culture"? [14].

But Han culture is still very different from Qin culture. The above argument does not mean that we should conclude that "Han culture is Qin culture". Han culture is neither Chu culture nor Qin culture.

Compared with the Qin culture, the Han culture is more open, more adept at absorbing, and more compatible with the capacity and ability. For example, the Han culture has absorbed a rich political and cultural nutrition from the Qilu culture, whether in the political thought or in the court ritual, the Han culture has absorbed more than the Qin culture from the Qilu culture. Compared with the Qin culture, the Han culture was strengthened in romantic atmosphere, and it was obviously more influenced by the Chu culture in this respect. The Han culture, while still practical, also added rationality, and in the level of rational discursive understanding, compared with the Qin culture, there was a significant increase. This is a manifestation of the progress of culture with the times, and this improved and advanced culture is also more suitable for the needs of the times.

During the Western Han period, many learned men and women reflected on Qin's administration again and again, leaving behind a great deal of extremely valuable intellectual material, which is the famous "Over Qin". This is the famous "Over Qin". "Over Qin" is a profound historical reflection, but also on the basis of reflection on the creative exploration of politics. "It is a comprehensive reflection, which also includes the repeated examination of Qin culture. In the course of reflection, people recognized some of the shortcomings of Qin culture and explored measures to correct them.

From the point of view of political thought and system, the Han culture showed a greater adaptability and resilience than the Qin culture. Jia Yi has clearly realized that the failure of Qin's government lies in the fact that "benevolence and righteousness are not applied, and the situation of attack and defense is different"? [15], that is to say, any ruling ideology and policy must be practical and adapted to the specific situation of the time, and cannot be bent on having its own way, nor can it remain unchanged. When Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu put forward the request for "more reform", which can also be said to be the derivation of the idea of "transcending the Qin Dynasty". In his later years, Emperor Wu finally realized the importance of "changing things with the people". In the two Han dynasties, all the capable rulers paid attention to adjusting their policies frequently and acted in accordance with the trend. In terms of ruling ideology, at the beginning of the Han Dynasty, a series of lenient and affluent policies such as "rule by doing nothing" and "resting with the people" were implemented in accordance with the ideas of the Yellow Emperor, and then, during the reign of Emperor Wu, the rule of "doing something" was changed to "doing something", which was to promote internal work and open up external affairs. "rule, to the period of Zhao, Xuan and change over. Generally speaking, the rulers of the Han Dynasty were far better than their predecessors in mastering the rhythm of relaxation and relaxation, thus preventing social conflicts from becoming too intense. This is one of the basic reasons why both the Western Han and the Eastern Han were able to maintain a longer period of rule and stable development.

The diversity of Han culture is much more obvious than that of Qin culture, and its strengths in this regard can be more fully expressed. This so-called "hegemony Road mixed" of the Han family system, that is, a mixture of different schools of political culture to rule the world, this so-called "mixed", that is, with different political and cultural colors of the ruling ideology, widely absorbed, respectively, the main advantages and disadvantages of taking the essence, inclusive of all. The first is that the government is not a party to the law, but a party to the law.

As far as the political system is concerned, the most significant difference between the early Han Dynasty and the Qin Dynasty is the parallel system of counties and states. The Qin dynasty officials had debated whether or not to implement the feudal system. In fact, in terms of the historical conditions at that time, both Chun Yu Yue, who advocated the feudal system, and Li Si, who advocated a single-county system, were one-sided. Qin Shi Huang's advice to Li Si, the dominant side is right and good, but from the partition of the six states to a highly centralized world, the span can not be said to be too large. Such a "progress" was too much for the history of that time to bear. Judging from the outcome of the fall of the Qin regime, the fact is that the negative effects of the adoption of this system cannot be denied.

This was not the case in the Han dynasty, which had parallel counties and states, with the central government directly in charge of a part of the country, and the same vassal kings in charge of a part of the country (at the beginning, there were still a few vassal kings with different surnames, which was a product of special historical conditions, and they were basically wiped out in a short time). Admittedly, there were many problems with this, and they became more serious later on, but the parallel system of counties and states, with its two systems, allowed the advantages and disadvantages to be complementary and mutually reinforcing, and on the whole there was more room for manoeuvre. From a historical point of view, the county

state parallel system in the early years of the Western Han Dynasty is suitable, there is a historical reason for its existence, can not be completely rejected because of its later disadvantages.

At all levels of culture, the Han culture was good at merging and absorbing, which was conducive to innovation and development. Taking literature as an example, the literature of the Han dynasty burst with great vitality and creativity. Like Jia Yi, its political thesis has the Qin culture's vigor, and its fugue from the Chu culture has absorbed more nutrition. Because of the multiple sources of absorption, active thinking, inspiration, the prosperity of literature in the Han Dynasty is incomparable to that of the Qin Dynasty.

As far as political and social life was concerned, the Han dynasty was also far more open, more active and more vibrant than the Qin dynasty. The Han regime succeeded in bridging the gap between the upper and lower strata of society, and the supreme ruler had the opportunity to talk to the literati and scholars living at the bottom of the social ladder, thus effectively absorbing the latter into the ruling group. In terms of the spirit of Han society, it was also more bold and unrestrained. On the whole, although there were still constraints on social life in the Han Dynasty as in the Qin Dynasty, there was more flexibility and vitality, rather than excessive rigidity as in the Qin Dynasty.

However, the Han culture in its mature period also had some regressions compared with the Qin culture. For example, Dong Zhongshu's statement that "to be correct in one's friendship is not to seek one's profit, and to be clear in one's ways is not to count one's achievements"? [16] and the voices of Confucians such as Yinliang and Literature expressed in the Salt and Iron Conference reflected the tendency of conservatism that deviated from the utilitarianism of Qin culture. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the culture of "literature" and "virtue" was more than enough, but the culture of "martial arts" and "power" was too weak. Since Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, there has been a clear tendency for the development of the Han Dynasty to turn weaker.

It is said that in the Northern Song Dynasty, when Su Shi was the official Hanlin scholar, his undercover staff used to "Liu Langzhong word is only eighty-seven women, red teeth board, singing 'Yang Liu Bank, the wind and the waning moon'; Bachelor's word must be Guanshi Han, copper pipa, iron nickel plate, singing 'Going East of the Yangtze River'" to summarize the situation. '" to summarize the different styles of the words of Liu Yong and Su Shi. So, can we cite some things that best represent the different styles of Qin, Chu and Han cultures? It is certainly not easy, but we might as well try. Perhaps the most representative of the general style of Qin culture are: the Qin Laws (originally lost, but later reappeared in front of the world due to the excavation of the Qin slips in Sleeping Tiger Land in Yunmeng, Hubei Province) and the system of legal system, the stone carvings left by the First Emperor of Qin during his tour of the world and his words, and the terracotta warriors and horses in the tomb of the First Emperor and his burial pits. The most representative of the style of Chu culture is naturally the bronze and lacquer ware of Chu, the philosophy of LaoZhuang and Chu rhetoric, the very romantic color of Chu's worship of the gods, is the mouth of the Chu people, "three years without gossamer (fly), gossamer will be sky-high," and the momentum and the "Chu, although the three households, the death of the Qin will be Chu" unyielding spirit. and the unyielding spirit of "Although Chu has three households, the death of Qin will be Chu". The most representative of the overall style of Han culture can perhaps be said to be: the Han Fu, the system of selection of personnel formed during the time of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the politics under the cover of the doctrine of "the induction of heaven and man", the "Records of the Grand Historian" and the spirit of exploration centered therein in the "study of heaven and earth", the debate at the Salt and Iron Conference (its debates), and the "Iron and Steel Conference" (its debates). The debates at the Salt and Iron Conference (the main points of which are reflected in the book Salt and Iron Theory), and Confucian moral education based on filial piety. Such an example, or will leave Fangjia laughed at, but the author for the time being, whether it is appropriate, I would like to teach.

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[1] Ge Jianxiong: "Immigration and Qin culture" article has been detailed to identify the "Qin culture", pointing out that it generally includes four different meanings: Qin culture, Qin culture, Qin culture, The culture of the Qin people, the Qin state, the Qin dynasty, and the Qin land. The text is contained in the Museum of the Terracotta Warriors and Horses of the First Emperor of Qin Shi Huang (秦始皇兵马俑博物馆), the third series of the Qin Culture Series (秦文化论丛), Northwestern University Press (西北大学出版社), 1994, pp. 67-72.

[2] The Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), "Justice", interprets the phrase "according to ancient times" as "according to the laws of ancient times".

[3] (Qing Dynasty) Yun Jing: "Three Generations of Reforms" (三代因革論), Dayun shanfang wenzhi (大云山房文稿), vol. 1.

[4] Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) - Wei shijia (The Family of Wei).

[5] Preface to the Shiji - Chronology of the Six Kingdoms.

[6] The Records of the Grandmaster (史记-高祖本纪).

[7]Shiji - Gaozu Benji (史记-高祖本纪), "Collected Explanations", citing "Customs and General Meanings" (风俗通义).

[8] "Outline of the History of Han Literature," Lu Xun Complete Works, vol. 9, People's Literature Publishing House, 1982 edition, p. 385.

[9] See Historical Records - Liu Jing Shusuntong Liezhuan (刘敬叔孙通列传).

[10]Yuan Zhongyi: "From the archaeological data to see the development and main achievements of Qin culture", Research Office of the Museum of the Terracotta Warriors and Horses of the First Emperor of Qin, edited by the Qin Culture Series, Series 1, Northwestern University Press, 1993 edition, p. 28.

[11] The author notes the results achieved by Mr. Huang Liuzhu in this regard, who says: "The most central part of Qin culture is also precisely its political system." See The Southern Sowing of Qin Culture, edited by the Research Office of the Museum of the Terracotta Warriors and Horses of the First Qin Emperor, Qin Culture Series, Second Series, Northwestern University Press, 1993, pp. 89-90.

[12] The Records of the Grand Historian (史记-礼书).

[13] Shiji - Gaozu Benji.

[14]Huang Liuzhu: "Qin culture overview", "Qin Culture Series", No. 1, p. 94.

[15] "Over Qin Lun," cited in Shiji - Qin Shi Huang Ben Ji (史记-秦始皇本纪).

[16] Han Shu - Dong Zhongshu biography.