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China's ancient definition of aesthetics and its philosophical relationship
This paper attempts to have a brief and comprehensive grasp of China's ancient aesthetic thought. In my opinion, the aesthetic feeling is caused by the aesthetic object, and the object that generally causes the aesthetic feeling to be satisfied, perfect and pleasant is beauty. Aesthetics should not only study the law of feeling, but also the law of feeling object. In other words, aesthetics should not only become aesthetics and subject aesthetics, but also become the essence and object aesthetics of beauty. Therefore, when explaining China's ancient aesthetic thoughts, this paper will focus on China's ancient theory about the essence and aesthetic feeling of beauty.
China's general view on the essence of beauty in ancient times.
China's ancient aesthetics are both different and similar. The so-called "sameness" refers to the sameness of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, the sameness in different ways, and the sameness in the end, or the prevailing and dominant viewpoint in China's ancient cultural classics. Generally speaking, China's general views on beauty in ancient times are as follows:
First, "taste" is beautiful. This is China's objective understanding of the essence of beauty without value tendency in ancient times, which can be regarded as a philosophical definition of the natural state of beauty. From Xu Shen's interpretation of "beauty" as a "sweet" taste in the Eastern Han Dynasty to Duan Yucai's statement that "all five flavors of beauty are sweet" in the Qing Dynasty, linguists generally define beauty as a pleasant taste. The interpretation of "beauty" by ancient philologists reflects the general understanding that "beauty" is "sweetness" in ancient China. Confucius "never tires of eating essence, never tires of eating essence", and when he heard the gorgeous Shao, he was happy to "know the taste of meat in March". Laozi originally despised desires and feelings, but he took "serving the stomach, not for the purpose" as the life criterion of "sage" and called him "great beauty"-"Tao" the most delicious ". Buddhists also have the concept of "tasteless". Taking "taste" as beauty constitutes the most fundamental difference from the western view of the essence of beauty that limits beauty to audio-visual pleasure.
Second, take "meaning" as beauty. This can be regarded as China's ancient definition of the natural state of beauty essence, which entrusted China's ancient aesthetic ideal. According to China's ancient aesthetics, beauty is a quick and comfortable taste, which mainly lies not in the form and quality of things themselves, but in the humanistic spirit contained in things. This spirit can be expressed as the immediate projection of the emotions, intuition and ideas of the aesthetic subject, that is, the so-called "things are viewed with emotion, so words must be clever and beautiful" (Liu Xie) and "things follow me with color" (Wang Guowei), and it can also be expressed as an objective subjective spirit, that is, the so-called "jade beauty has five virtues" (plum, orchid and chrysanthemum that are interpreted with words) Mountains, waters, springs and forests, because they are ethereal and quiet ideal places, have become the beloved homes of Taoists and people born. The beauty of reality comes from "humanized nature" and the beauty of art lies in "objectification of human nature". Poets express their feelings, prose is a study of mind, calligraphy is a study of mind, and painting is still freehand brushwork. "People who enter a person's heart are full of emotions" (Zhang Xuecheng), "Without deep emotions, they can't be thrilling" (Jiao Hong), and only "deep meaning" can be "full of charm". Therefore, the ancients advocated "literature attaches importance to care" and "poetry and painting attach importance to God" (Fang). China had the theory of "interest" in ancient times. "fun", that is, "fun"; "Interest" means "meaning". The theory of "interest" condensed China's ancient view on the essence of beauty: meaning is taste. This is obviously different from the western objectivism aesthetics.
Third, "Tao" is beauty. This is another form of China's ancient definition of the state value of the essence of beauty, and it is also the embodiment of China's ancient beauty with "meaning". There are more obvious moral ideals in this. Confucianism regards moral enrichment as beauty. For example, Confucius said "Tao is beauty", Mencius said "enrichment is beauty" and Xunzi said "imperfection is beauty". Taoism also takes moral enrichment as beauty. In Zhuangzi, there is a poem "DeChong Fu", which clearly regards beauty as a symbol full of morality and describes many "supreme people" and "divine people" with deformed bodies and perfect morality. Laozi said "the elephant is invisible" and Zhuangzi said "simplicity cannot compete with the beauty of the world". "Happiness", "invisibility" and "simplicity" are all moral images that are inaction and natural. Buddhists believe that the beauty of the world is illusory and unreal, the real beauty is nirvana Buddhism and Taoism, and nirvana has various beautiful attributes such as purity, coolness, tranquility, happiness and light.
Fourth, isomorphism is beauty. This is China's ancient understanding of the psychological essence of beauty. Human nature "loves and hates differences", "those who know each other will be ridiculed, and those who disagree with me will be abandoned." "The same voice corresponds to the same spiritual pursuit." "Everything has its differences, but it follows its similarities." These are clear explanations of the view that isomorphism is beauty. It originated from the cultural system of the unity of nature and man and the unity of things and me in ancient China. In the ancient culture of China, heaven and man, things and me are of the same origin. They are heterogeneous and isomorphic, and they can perceive each other. Huai Nan Zi put it well: "Heaven and earth and the universe are one person." "The object is the same and this standard is corresponding." This kind of induction belongs to the phenomenon of * * *, which is a pleasant beauty. In fact, in China's ancient thought that "meaning" is the beauty and "Tao" is the beauty, it already contains the deep consciousness that the isomorphism between subject and object is beauty. Confucianism holds that "everything is ready for me", "knowing the heaven with one heart" (Mencius), "benevolence" means "heavenly heart" (Dong Zhongshu), and "heavenly principle" means "my heart". The beauty of heaven and earth is the objectification of the beauty of the subject, thus showing a certain isomorphic state. Taoism thinks the avenue is the most beautiful. To grasp the nothingness of Tao, the cognitive subject must treat it with a quiet nothingness. As the saying goes, "there is always a desire to see its wonders, and there is always a desire to see its worries" (Lao Tzu). Similarly, Buddhists believe that true beauty is Buddhism and Taoism, which means nirvana, and nirvana means silence and emptiness. There are many ways to think that there is a sincere view and empty it with a hollow view. This is called "inside and outside, make it work" (Seng Zhao's theory of Prajna Ignorance). It can be seen that the most beautiful way recognized by Taoism and Buddhism is the isomorphism of the hollowness of the subject on the object. This is in line with the western modern gestalt aesthetics.
5. Although "Yi" and "Tao" were the ideal beauty in ancient China, they did not deny the formal beauty of things. "Wen" in ancient Chinese means "Shi Wen" and "beauty". Taking "writing" as beauty is the concentrated expression of China's ancient thought of formal beauty. The original meaning of "Wen" is the image of "Jiao Wen" and "Wrong Painting" (Xu Shen), that is, the texture of the body or the body with arts and sciences. Because this characteristic form gives people a pleasing pleasure, "Wen" has the derivative meaning of "beauty". The beauty of "writing" in ancient China shows that the ancients were partial to the beauty of morality and content, but they did not completely ignore the beauty of literature and decoration and the beauty of form. Confucianism, which attaches importance to "ethics", shows a strong tradition of "good writing" in its attitude towards the decorative beauty and formal beauty of literature. Because Confucianism was the dominant ideology in ancient times, after the strong advocacy and personal practice of rulers in previous dynasties, "being good at writing" became the traditional fashion of the whole Han society. In contrast, Buddhism and Taoism are non-literature. Taoism demands "closing one's eyes" and putting an end to the beauty of literary ornaments from the perspective of ruthless humanity, while Buddhism, on the premise of "color is empty", accuses the beauty of hue as a mere mirror, because the inherent contradictions of these theories were not convinced by the ancients, so they did not have a fundamental impact on the rule and leading position of Confucian thought of "literature is beauty"
Taking taste as beauty, heart as beauty, Tao as beauty, isomorphism as beauty and writing as beauty are the common views of China on the essence of beauty in ancient times. It constitutes the overall characteristics of China's aesthetic essence view.
However, it is not enough to pay attention to the above overall characteristics. Looking deeper, China's ancient aesthetics also showed some differences in the essence of beauty, mainly reflected in the differences among Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.
Confucian theory of beauty
"Virtue is beauty", which is the basic view of Confucianism on the nature of natural beauty. Its meaning is that the beauty of natural beauty lies in that natural images, as aesthetic objects, can be compared with people and become a symbol of human morality; The beauty of natural things lies not in their natural attributes, but in the moral significance they symbolize. As Confucius said, "Wise people enjoy water, while benevolent people enjoy Leshan." Liu Baonan's "The Analects of Justice" points out that "the benevolent is Leshan" and "the benevolent is better than the mountain, so Leshan is also". Love the water, a wise man, Liu Baonan quoted Confucius in The Analects of Justice: "love the water, a gentleman, is not as good as love the water, a gentleman." Mencius believed that the beauty of water lies in its inexhaustible "source" and its solidity and gradual progress, just as a "gentleman" has a profound moral "foundation" and his moral cultivation is gradual: "Running water is also a thing, but he is not good at Yingke; The ambition of a gentleman is also in the Tao, and it cannot reach the chapter. " Xunzi still inherited Confucius, and through the mouth of Confucius, expressed his view of nature, that is, virtue is beauty. For example, Xunzi Faxing records that Confucius is more virtuous than jade: What is the reason why Zi Gong asks Confucius that a gentleman values jade and is cheap? Too little wealth and too much money are evil. Confucius said: Evil! Here! What is this? How cheap a gentleman is, how expensive a villain is! Rich as jade, a gentleman is better than virtue. Warm and gentle, benevolent; Chestnut and therefore, know also; Firm and unyielding, righteous words; Cheap but not embarrassing, ok; Brave and unyielding; See both defects and suitability, love also; Deduct it, its voice is clear, stop it, and its words are also organized. So although there are precious carvings, they are not like jade seals. "Poetry" says that a gentleman is as warm as jade. This is also called. "Dong Zhongshu, a Confucian in the Han Dynasty, pointed out in the Fu on Mountains and Rivers in the Spring and Autumn Period that the beauty of mountains and rivers is a symbol of" people with lofty ideals "entering Germany to study. Zhou Dunyi once wrote "On Love Lotus", which created a beautiful image of "Lotus" emerging from the mud but not stained. From pre-Qin Confucianism to Han Confucianism, from Sui and Tang Confucianism to Song Confucianism, the idea that nature is more beautiful than morality has been continuously inherited, publicized and spread, forming a tradition and a major feature of Confucian aesthetics. It is in this aesthetic tradition and aesthetic context that the images of "four gentlemen" and "three friends who are old and cold" in China's paintings are produced, and a series of natural beauty images such as plum, orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum, pine, narcissus and landscape in China's poems and paintings are produced.
There are many thoughts about "emotion" being beautiful in China's ancient aesthetics. From the school attribute and ideological origin, taking "emotion" as beauty belongs to Confucian aesthetics. Taoism, starting from the nature and no will of human nature, requires people to be heartless, thoughtless and carefree. Buddhists believe that people's lust is the bane of life's pain and demand that it be cured by practicing precepts. As far as the basic attitude and general trend are concerned, Confucianism faces up to and recognizes the objective existence of human nature. For example, Confucius said "benefiting people", Mencius advocated "the desire to gather people", and Xunzi pointed out "educating people by courtesy" and "the desire to educate people is sought by others." In the history of China, even the most conservative Confucian representatives Dong Zhongshu and Zhu did not completely deny lust. For example, Dong Zhongshu said: "The saints control the people, make them want, and forbid them to have holidays;" To put it simply, there must be no desire. " Zhu Xi pointed out: "It is not good for people to be incomplete." "Can hunger make people want to eat?" ? Can you be cold without wearing fake clothes? Can make strangers do whatever they want? Although you want to destroy it, you can't get it and you can't destroy it. This basic attitude of Confucianism towards "lust" laid the ideological foundation for China's aesthetics to take "emotion" as beauty. China's ancient aesthetics took "emotion" as beauty, and traced back to the source. The music notes of Xunzi, Yue Lun and Li Ji can be regarded as the origin. "Music Theory" and "Music Book" think that people are born with love, and if they can't vent and satisfy their feelings, they can't be chaotic, and excessive indulgence of lust will also bring social chaos, so the sage music system uses it to moderately vent human feelings. Therefore, the first function of music is to make people happy and satisfy their feelings of seeking happiness; The second function is to make love not go beyond etiquette and morality, and to achieve "beauty and goodness are all happy." "During the Six Dynasties, people inherited and carried forward the idea that Confucianism in the pre-Qin period and Confucianism in the Han dynasty combined the good with the beautiful, and their desire for harmony was endless. They "let nature take its course with many names", separated "emotion" from the cage of morality and ethics, and clearly put forward that "emotion" is beautiful. Lu Ji's Wen Fu pointed out: "Poetry is beautiful because of love." "Words are indifferent and love is rare." Liu Xie of Liang Dynasty also clearly linked "emotion" with "beauty" in Wen Xin Diao Long: "Things are viewed with emotion, so words must be skillful and beautiful." "Literary talent is so decorated, but distinguishing beauty is based on emotion." "Complex and indifferent, the taste will be disgusting. When analyzing literary works, Shen Yue's Biography of Xie Lingyun pointed out that "writing carries feelings" and "writing carries feelings". After distinguishing between "writing" and "pen", Xiao Yi pointed out: "If you want to write as well as writing, you must be radiant, boring, kissing your lips and swaying your feelings. Jin Zhiyu's Essay on Parting advocates that "emotion comes from words, and words are form", and poetry is based on emotion and emotion. Such things can be regarded as an integral part of emotional aesthetics in the field of poetry and prose in the Six Dynasties. From Sui and Tang Dynasties to the end of Song Dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, it was an era that tended to be autocratic politically and conservative ideologically. The theory of "evil nature" in the Han Dynasty was revived in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and the theory of emotional beauty in the Six Dynasties fell into the abyss. After a thousand years of heavy repression, it was formed with the reaction of Wang Xue's leftists in the middle of Ming Dynasty and the rise of enlightenment thoughts in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty.
The great wave of sentimentalism has played a strong role in emotional aesthetics in China's aesthetic history. Aesthetic experts in Ming and Qing dynasties talked about the touching beauty of emotion many times. Li Kaixian's Preface to Market Words is called "Market Words", and its feelings are particularly touching. Xu Wei pointed out: "If love is true, it will be touching and easy." Jiao Hong said: "Without deep feelings, you can't be thrilling." Yuan Hongdao: "Love words are probably touching." Zhang Xuecheng said: "All articles are not enough to enter people, so those who enter people also have feelings." Huang Zongxi said: "Anyone who is in love is not without him." Wang Fuzhi said: "Wherever love goes, there is no shortage of poetry; Where poetry goes, love will come "and so on.
Confucianism advocates etiquette, "the use of courtesy, harmony is precious." "Neutralization" means beauty, which is another unique contribution of Confucian aesthetics. The Analects of Confucius records that a disciple of Confucius had a son who said, "Harmony is the most precious gift, and Wang Zhidao is the first beauty." This passage of having a son accords with the original meaning of Confucius' thought. Dong Zhongshu, a Han Confucian, put it well in the Spring and Autumn Heaven: "The beauty of heaven and earth is also ... the harmony, and the meaning of justice is also ... the way to raise heaven and earth is the harmony." The beauty of "harmony" derived from "ceremony" has many manifestations in the social reality of ancient China. The first is the sum of heaven and earth, which is the ontology and generating basis of the sum of human beings. Secondly, as the inevitable reflection of the "harmony between man and nature", it is "harmony between man and nature" and "harmony between people". "The harmony of all people" is manifested in the harmony of peers, generations and society. The principle of reconciliation is "the unity of son and father" and "the unity of youth and appearance"; The principle of the sum of the same generation is "to unify the customs with the post", "to unify the elders with the young" and "to unify the men with the women". The sum of society is a harmonious society composed of peers and different generations, and everyone loves each other. The "Great Harmony World" described in the Book of Rites is such a harmonious society. The realization of "the sum of all people" and "the sum of the world" according to "the sum of heaven and earth" depends on the political sum of the rulers. The sum of politics, on the one hand, depends on the unconditional unity of the lower and upper levels, that is, "great unity"; On the other hand, it depends on the caress of the upper class. Harmonious society must take harmony as beauty. The so-called "harmony between people" means that people in society must abide by a series of codes of conduct, such as the sum of generations, the sum of politics, the sum of gods and men, and cannot indulge their willfulness and do whatever they want. In order to oppose willfulness, Confucius put forward the golden mean. The requirements of China's ancient literary aesthetics: "Harmony is the key to pleasure", "Harmony is the key to the piano" and "Gentle and sincere, poetic teaching" are all famous propositions characterized by artistic beauty.
Compared with Buddhism and Taoism, Confucianism attaches great importance to formal beauty. In addition to the theory of pure formal beauty, Confucianism also discusses the formal beauty of "fitting the purpose", which is the appropriate expression of content. For example, Confucius said, "Words are not enough." "More words are history, and less words cannot be achieved." Jason put it more clearly: "Success is a job", and Liu Xizai said: "The trouble with writing is nothing more than overqualification and underqualification". In the ancient literary criticism, a series of arguments were often launched around the beauty and ugliness of the language form of literary works: is the wording of the article complex or simple? Is it deep or shallow? Is it better to be together or apart? Is it gorgeous or plain? Is it implicit or explicit? Is it better to be old or new? And so on. Although these problems belong to formal beauty, they must be examined in combination with the meaning contained in words. Language is beautiful only when the meaning is properly expressed, and it is not beautiful if it overflows with lewdness and cannot fully express the meaning. Without the meaning contained in the words, it will be superficial if it is simple, simple, scattered and subtle in isolation.
Taoist aesthetics
Taoism believes that the essence of beauty is "Tao". "Tao" has a series of characteristics, and beauty also presents a series of forms. "Tao" transcends all kinds of fame, so the beauty of experience is limited and not perfect; Infinite beauty is just unexplored, which means "it tastes tasteless" and "it's not fun to be happy". Based on this, Taoism discusses the beauty of inaction, silence, invisibility, wordlessness and tasteless.
Although "nothing" is the highest beauty, in reality, the beauty of "nothing" is inseparable from "being". As Wang Bi said: "The four elephants are invisible, but the elephants are not smooth; If you don't pronounce five notes, there will be no big notes. " Therefore, the beauty of "nothing" is finally reflected in "being". This kind of beauty, with or without phase, is confusing and elusive. Taoism calls it "Miao", and "Miao" has become synonymous with "beauty" and is the highest beauty. Xuan, Yuan, Yi, Gu, Cang, Lao, Shen, Wei, You and Jue are all beautiful because of their beauty.
"The export of Tao is tasteless." "Tao", as a tasteless taste, is frivolous in feeling, so Taoism takes "lightness" as beauty. As an aesthetic category, "Pu" was put forward by Laozi, but before Wei and Jin Dynasties, it mainly appeared in the face of realistic beauty, and celebrities in Wei and Jin Dynasties developed it to the extreme in their life practice. At the same time, from the Wei and Jin Dynasties, "Dan" began to appear in the face of artistic beauty, marked by Tao Yuanming's poems. As the beauty of reality, "lightness" refers more to the aesthetic ideal of personality. There are three main points. One is "indifferent", indifferent to the world and detached from things. The so-called "deep", "quiet", "carefree", "light", "elegant", "ancient", "indifferent" and "distant" of the ancients generally refer to this kind of beauty. The second is "weak feelings." Since you don't have to care too much about worldly things, you don't have to be too involved and emotional in anything. Even in the face of life and death, we should remain calm. This is a kind of heartless beauty after reaching the mystery of the universe of life, a kind of calm and self-sustaining beauty when five mountains collapse in front of us, and an admirable aesthetic way to handle and control emotional waves. This is what the ancients called "diluted", "plain" and "indifferent" beauty. Third, the shape is light. This is the expression of the "light" beauty of personality in the way of behavior. The so-called "Jane" and "Thin" refer to this. "If the road is simple", "The road is not annoying" and "If Ming Dow is ignorant". Simple people should be characterized by "wishing words", doing nothing, leaving no trace and no emotion, thus leaving endless aftertaste for people. As an artistic beauty, the connotation of "lightness" of realistic beauty is naturally preserved and reflected in the plain realm of art. It is worth noting that after the Song Dynasty, "lightness" in art did not emphasize the mystery of thought, but the plainness of content and form. The content of "plain" means that the meaning expressed by artistic works should be "light and far", "light and thick" and "light and deep". The "prosaic" in form refers to "extremely refined as if without essence" (Liu Xizai), "prosaic comes from self-organization" and "seemingly prosaic, actually strange, but actually easy and difficult". It is "light and thick", "simple and beautiful", "easy and difficult" and "dry and paste".
"Tao" is weak and inferior, so "softness" has become an aesthetic category. Laozi said, "Weakness is better than strength." "Strong places, weak places." "The weak is better than the strong, and the soft is better than the strong." "The world is the softest and the strongest." "Soft" and "weak" are more beautiful than "rigid" and "strong". Similarly, "female" is better than "male" and "small" is better than "big". "Xia", "base", "stupid", "clumsy" and "indisputable" all have aesthetic significance.
In ancient China, the word "nature" was associated with "beauty". For example, Zhang Yanyuan's "Famous Paintings of Past Dynasties": "Natural people are above the top grade." This aesthetic category was first put forward by Laozi. Laozi said: "Taoism is natural", "Taoism is respected, morality is precious, and Taoism is natural." It can be seen that "nature" is a major feature of "Tao" in the process of gestating everything. The beauty of nature is the logical product of the beauty of Tao. "Everyone knows that beauty is beauty, and evil has been done; Everyone knows that good is good and bad is bad. " Losing nature and doing something with purpose and will can only add chaos and run counter to "beauty". Based on the idea that nature is beautiful, Zhuangzi thinks that "the sound of nature is more beautiful than human voice" and advocates that "all carvings should be restored to simplicity" and "simplicity is beyond the reach of heaven and earth". "Zhuangzi Miki" said: "Beauty is self-beautiful, I don't know its beauty ... I go to the sage and go to the sage, I don't love it!" This means not only modesty and humility, but also naturalness.
Laozi and Zhuangzi oppose "pleasing life" and advocate "respecting life", which stems from the characteristics of "life" or "Tao" In Laozi and Zhuangzi's view, "Tao" gives birth to all things and achieves all beings. Since Tao is the most beautiful, life, as one of the attributes of Tao, is bound to be beautiful, worthy of respect and precious. This idea of Laozi was later expressed in the Book of Changes of the Warring States as "the great virtue of heaven and earth means life". The sun and the moon are all cloudy, and the yin and yang of heaven and earth turn into everything. Giving life to all things is the most beautiful thing between heaven and earth. Yang Xiong's Tai Xuan Da Wen Xuan: "The land of heaven and earth is called' life'." "expensive" people are also beautiful. Xie's "Shangcai Quotations" cloud:
"What is the heart? Renji. What is a benevolent person? The living are benevolent, and the dead are ruthless. Nowadays people are paralyzed and ignorant, which is called' heartless'. Those who approve peaches and apricots are called' peach kernels' and' almonds', which means life. " The so-called "the living are kind and the dead are heartless" means "the living are beautiful and the dead are ugly". There is a word in ancient Chinese called "insensitive", and "benevolence" can not be interpreted as "goodness", but only as "beauty" can be understood. The existence of life is the greatest beauty between heaven and earth. The life of all things in the universe is produced by vitality. Therefore, "life" is beauty, and natural "vitality" is beauty. In ancient aesthetics, there is a theory of "literary spirit", which seeks literature with "literary spirit", and "literary spirit" is "the vitality of literature". The theory of "literary spirit" requires the article to be full, prosperous, full and heavy, opposes the "weakness" of the article and advocates the vitality of the aftermath. Literary spirit, as the expression of the writer's main vitality, must avoid "fainting", "arrogance", "disgusting", "rustic", "domineering", "stagnant", "artisan", "sulking" and "floating". Anger in this paper is not only the flow of the writer's "righteousness" and "true spirit", but also the creation of the writer's artistic life. If the display of the writer's main vitality provides Wen Qi with vitality in content, then the creation of the writer's artistic life provides Wen Qi with vitality in form. When "Qi" is combined with rhetoric, structure and form of the article, it forms "Qi Ci", "Yun Qi", "Qi Pulse", "Momentum", "Qi Bone" and "Meteorology", which are all living images.
In Taoist theory, "sex" refers to "adaptability" except "no will", that is, "conforming to the nature of things" The essence of "whole life" is that "whole" and "nature" are beauty, that is to say, "fitness" is beauty. Taking "life" as beauty naturally takes "wholeness" as beauty. Zhuangzi is opposed to "feeling things", and many places emphasize the need to "protect his life" ("Mourning"), "let his life" ("Thumb") and "don't lose his life" (ibid.). Zhuangzi reiterated such an idea in different ways: things are beautiful when they are suitable, and ugly when they are lost. On this basis, Zhuangzi emphasized "adapting to one's own situation" rather than "adapting to others". "fame", "profit", "country" and "world" are all alienation of human nature, and things outside the human body die for them, all of which are stupid behaviors that do not know how to adapt themselves. Since things conform to their own nature, that is, beauty, and their physical properties are different, there are various forms that conform to their physical properties, and beauty has various forms. The article "Zhuangzi Youmu" talks about the diversity of beauty: "The most correct person does not lose his life. So, the combination is not parallel, and the division is not parallel? ; The elderly are not redundant, and the short ones are not insufficient. Therefore, although the shin is short, it continues to be sad: although the crane shin is long, it is sad to break. Therefore, the long-term is not broken, the short-term is not continuous, and there is nothing to worry about. " Guo Xiang expounded Zhuangzi's thought in Zhuangzi's Note. Notes on a Happy Journey says that both "big" and "small" can be beautiful as long as they are "suitable": "Although a husband is small and big, if he is placed in a place of self-satisfaction, things are different, things are human words, and each has his own place and is happy. In the meantime, how can he win or lose? " "If you are satisfied with your gender, although Dapeng is not more expensive than birds, birds are not envious of Tianchi, but are unable to do so. So, although small and big, I am happy. " "Husband has never had a big desire for the small, but he will envy the big and the small. Therefore, the difference between small and big is different. If you don't want it, you can be exhausted. " "Joyful Notes" even said: "People who want to walk the dead have their own places, birds and animals, and the emperor promised not to say anything when they are in trouble. This is the most realistic thing in the world. Actually, what are you doing? I am complacent. "
On the Beauty of Buddhism
Buddhist beauty theory holds that "color is empty" from the origin theory, and the beauty of the material world has no constant ontology, which is illusory and unreal. Man's lust for the beautiful things in the material world is the root of infinite pain in life. On the basis of emphasizing the elimination of ignorant and greedy love for beauty, Buddhism also puts forward the "unclean view" of "disfigurement" in observing beauty. "impure view" includes impure view of object and impure view of subject. Look at his unclean body, including unclean seeds (based on the confusion of the past, taking the blood of parents as seeds), unclean residence (living in the mother's womb), unclean self (the object is composed of 36 kinds of unclean things), and finally unclean (buried in the soil after death, or eaten by insects, or burned to ashes). Visualize your own impurity, including your own body death, body swelling, bruises, pus rot, decay, moth-eaten, and so on. "impurity" requires breaking "six desires" with "nine thoughts" In other words, "lust" (preference for beautiful colors) is broken by "blue imagination", "bloody imagination" and "rotten imagination"; Use "inflated imagination" (the imagination of a corpse), "bad imagination" (the imagination of a rotting corpse) and "bugs? Want to "(the imagination of dead bodies and maggots) to break the" desire to appear "; Use "scattered thoughts" (messy imagination of muscles, bones, head and hands after eating birds and beasts) to break "prestige posture desire" and "language sound desire"; Break the "delicate desire" with "bone thinking" (the imagination of touching a pile of white bones) and "burning thinking" (the imagination of touching the ashes of the deceased); Finally, use the above nine articles to break the "human desire". Through the "impure viewpoint", beauty becomes a "leather bag full of blood" and Nirvana Sutra even says: "All women are the residence of all evil." "No woman is pure," said Lotus Pond, a master of the Ming Dynasty. Women are unhappy, and no woman is happy. " Buddhism not only distorts the beauty of objective things into ugliness through the "impure view", but also regards the "nine orifices" of the human body-the passages of eyes, nose, ears, mouth and urine as "nine sores", which denies people's aesthetic senses from the main aspects.
Buddhism opposes secular beauty, but the "middle view" way of thinking makes it affirm the beauty of nirvana and the beauty of "Falun Chanle". Buddhist scriptures point out that in the real world, "everything is impermanent, happiness is less and suffering is more", while nirvana is "silence is happiness". Volume 18 of Za Agama describes the beauty of nirvana, saying that when this state is reached, "greed is endless, resentment is endless, ignorance is endless, and all troubles are endless. This is nirvana." Some schools of Mahayana Buddhism point out that nirvana has four virtues, namely constancy, joy, self-nature and purity, or eight virtues, namely constancy, constancy, security, coolness, youth, immortality, purity and happiness (Nirvana Sutra). Nirvana is not only the highest truth (constancy, constancy and happiness) Buddhism regards nirvana as a perfect and beautiful entity independent of human subject, saying that once you enter the realm of nirvana, you will die in the "Buddhist country" and "clean world", which is wonderful. As for the beauty of "pure land", Anguochan and Qunyi quoted by Song Yanshou's Wanji have "twenty-four pleasures" and "thirty benefits". "Infinite Life Sutra" preaches that in the pure land world of Amitabha Buddha and arachis duranensis, all the utensils are made of infinite miscellaneous treasures and hundreds of kinds of incense, where the lotus flowers are fragrant and the birds are singing. All beings are enjoying infinite happiness without any pain. "Clothes, food, flowers, buildings, sound, houses, palaces and castles are all of different sizes, or one room, two rooms or even countless rooms, so you should look at them at will." The so-called "Faxi" refers to the "happiness" that can be brought to people by conforming to Buddhism (Buddhist truth). Nirvana Sutra Volume 20 Sanskrit: "Nirvana practitioners are happy." Hokkekyo Pagoda: "You will feel happy when you hear the sound in the tower." The so-called "Zen Yue" refers to the joy brought by practicing meditation. Hua Yan Jing: "If you eat it,
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