What are the main achievements of the Renaissance?

Achievements of Western Culture in the Renaissance \ x0d \ x0d \ astronomy \ x0d \ x0d Polish astronomer Copernicus published "On Celestial Motion" in 1543, in which he proposed a Heliocentrism system different from Ptolemaic geocentric system. Bruno, an Italian thinker, declared in his works "On Infinity, Universe and All Worlds" and "On Cause, Origin and Unity" that the universe is infinite in space and time, and the sun is only the solar system, not the center of the universe. Galileo invented the astronomical telescope in 1609, published the Star Messenger in 16 10, and published the Dialogue between Ptolemy and Copernicus in 1632. Kepler, a German astronomer, put forward three laws of planetary motion in New Astronomy (1609) and Harmony of the World (16 19) by studying the observation data of Tycho, a Danish astronomer, and determined that the planetary motion around the sun along an elliptical orbit is not constant. \x0d\x0d\ mathematics \ x0d \ algebra made important development in the Renaissance, and found the solutions of cubic and quartic equations. Cardano, an Italian, published a formula for finding the roots of cubic equation in his book Great Skills, but the discovery of this formula should be attributed to another scholar, tartaglia. The solution of the quartic equation was discovered by Ferrari, a student in cardano, and also recorded in The Great Book. Bombelli expounded the irreducibility of cubic equations in his works, used imaginary numbers, and improved the popular algebraic symbols at that time. Symbolic algebra was founded by the French mathematician Veda in the16th century. He published "Introduction to Analytical Methods" at 159 1, systematically arranged algebra, and for the first time consciously used letters to represent unknowns and known numbers. In his other book, On the Identification and Correction of Equations, David improved the solutions of cubic and quartic equations, and established the relationship between the roots and coefficients of quadratic and cubic equations, which is known as Vieta's theorem in modern times. Trigonometry also made great progress during the Renaissance. On Triangle, written by German mathematician Reggio Montanus, is the first trigonometry work independent of astronomy in Europe. The book systematically expounds the plane triangle and spherical triangle, as well as a very accurate trigonometric function table. On the basis of redefining trigonometric function, Rhaticus, a student of Copernicus, made a more accurate trigonometric function table. \ x0d \ x0d \ physics \ x0d \ In physics, Galileo discovered three laws of falling body, throwing objects and shaking through many experiments, which made people have a new understanding of the universe. His student Torricelli proved the air pressure through experiments and invented the mercury barometer. Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the law of pressure propagation in liquids and gases. British scientist Boyle discovered the law of gas pressure. \x0d\\x0d\ Physiology and Medicine \x0d\ Visarius, a Belgian doctor, published the book Human Body Structure, which challenged Galen's "Trinity" theory. Spanish doctor Servit discovered the small circulation system of blood, which proved that blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs and reaches the left ventricle through a tortuous route. Harvey, a British anatomist, published the theory of heart-blood movement through a large number of animal anatomy experiments, which systematically explained the law of blood movement and the working principle of the heart. He pointed out that the heart is the center of blood movement and the source of strength. This great discovery made him the founder of modern physiology. \x0d\x0d\ "Great geographical discovery \ x0d \ Navigation technology has made a revolutionary leap, and explorers from Portugal, Spain and Italy began a series of long-distance navigation activities. The geographical discoveries of Columbus and Magellan provide strong evidence for the theory of the earth circle. The rediscovery of \ x0d \ x0d \ printing in Europe, as well as papermaking, compass and gunpowder (the four great inventions in China) from the East, promoted the rapid spread of scientific ideas. \x0d\x0d\ Literature \ x0d \ Writers from all over the world began to use their own dialects instead of Latin for literary creation, which promoted the emergence of popular literature and injected a large number of literary works into various languages, including novels, poems, essays, folk songs and plays. \ x0d \ x0d \ In Italy, "three outstanding literary figures" appeared in the early Renaissance. Dante wrote many academic works and poems in his life, among which the famous ones are "New Life" and "Divine Comedy". Petrarch is the originator of humanism and is known as the "father of humanism". He was the first to call for the revival of classical culture and put forward the idea that "humanism" opposed "theology". Petrarch mainly wrote many beautiful poems, among which the representative work is Lyric Sonnets. Boccaccio is the founder of Italian national literature, and decameron, a collection of short stories, is his masterpiece. \ x0d \ x0d \ In France, the Renaissance clearly formed two factions, one was optimates represented by Seven Star Poetry Society, and the other was Democrats represented by rabelais. The Seven Star Poetry Society, represented by Longsha and Du Beilai, has made outstanding contributions to language and poetry theory. They first put forward the idea of unifying national languages, which promoted the development of French national languages and national literature. But they rejected folk poetry and only served a few nobles. Rabelais is an outstanding humanist writer after Boccaccio and a representative of the French Renaissance Democrats. The Biography of the Giant, which he created in 20 years, is a realistic work interwoven with reality and fantasy, and occupies an important position in the history of European literature and education. \ x0d \ x0d \ In Britain, Thomas Moore and Shakespeare are the representatives. Thomas Moore is a famous humanist thinker and the founder of utopian socialism. 15 16 Utopia, which he wrote in Latin, is the first work of utopian socialism. Shakespeare is a gifted playwright and poet. He, together with Homer, Dante and Goethe, is called the four great European writers. His works have complete structure, vivid plot, rich and refined language and outstanding personality, which represent the highest achievement of European Renaissance literature and have a far-reaching impact on the development of European realistic literature. \ x0d \ x0d \ In Spain, the most outstanding representatives are Cervantes and Vega. Cervantes is a realistic writer, dramatist and poet. He wrote a large number of poems, plays and novels, of which Don Quixote, a long satirical novel, was the most famous, which had a great influence on the development of European literature. Vega is a dramatist, novelist and poet, the founder of Spanish national drama, and is known as the "father of Spanish drama". He is one of the few prolific writers in the world. He wrote more than 2,000 plays in his life, and more than 600 have been handed down to this day. There are religious drama, historical drama, divine drama, robe and sword drama, pastoral drama and other forms, which deeply reflect the social reality of Spain and are deeply loved by the masses. The most outstanding representative work is Yangquan Village. \ x0d \ x0d \ Renaissance architecture is an architectural style born with the cultural movement of Italian Renaissance in14th century. Based on the criticism of the supremacy of theocracy in the Middle Ages and the affirmation of humanitarianism, architects hope to reshape the harmonious order of the ideal classical society with the help of classical proportions. Therefore, generally speaking, Renaissance architecture pays attention to order and proportion, with strict facade and plane composition and column system inherited from classical architecture. \x0d\\x0d\ Features \x0d\ has a strong pursuit of the proportion of architecture, for example, it must be a multiple of 3 and 2, use symmetrical modeling, restore "nature" in a centralized way, and draw with a ruler, mainly opposing round and square Gothic buildings \\x0d\ Italy and its representative figures \x0d\\x0d. \x0d\ Florence's famous medici family was the most important patron of art at that time. \x0d\ Three famous figures in the Renaissance were all born in Italy. \x0d\x0d\ Representative figures: \ x0d \ Poets: Dante, Petrarch; \x0d\ Writers: Boccaccio, Machiavelli; \x0d\ Painters: Giotto, Botticelli, Da Vinci, Raphael, Titian; \x0d\ Sculptor: Michelangelo; Architect: Filippo Brwnelle-Schi; \x0d\ Musicians: Palestrina, Lasso and so on. \ x0d \ x0d \ Spain and its representative figures \ x0d \ 65438+ The Spanish Renaissance entered the "golden age" in the second half of the 6th century and the beginning of17th century, and made remarkable achievements in novels and dramas. \x0d\ representative figures: writer Cervantes, dramatist Lope de Vega \x0d\x0d\ Germany and their representative figures \ x0d \ in Germany, their main achievements are in religious reform, peasant war, satirical literature and scientific and technological inventions. \x0d\ Representative figures: Martin Luther, Diu Lei, etc. \x0d\x0d\ France and its representative figures \ x0d \ France: Free thinking and skeptical thinking are quite developed. \x0d\ Representative figures: essayist: Montaigne, novelist: rabelais, etc. \x0d\x0d\ Britain and its representatives \ x0d \ In Britain: poetry and drama have flourished unprecedentedly. \x0d\ Representative figures: writer Shakespeare, etc. \x0d\ Significance of Renaissance \ x0d \ x0d \ For a long time, Renaissance was regarded as a simple restoration of classical culture. In fact, the Renaissance did not really want to "restore" classical culture, but to attack the culture and system at that time, so as to establish a new culture and create public opinion for the establishment of a new social system. \ x0d \ x0d \ Renaissance is a period of gradual development, with no clear dividing line and events. But the Renaissance changed people's thinking at that time, which led to the religious reform and fierce religious war. The later Enlightenment took the Renaissance as an example. /kloc-historians in the 0 th and 9 th centuries believe that the subsequent scientific development, geographical discoveries and the birth of nation-states all originated from the Renaissance. Renaissance is the watershed between the middle ages and modern times in the "dark age" and the public opinion premise of bourgeois revolution. Renaissance is a prelude to liberating Europe from the shackles of decadent feudal religions and expanding it to the whole world. \x0d\x0d\ Different views on the Renaissance \ x0d \ The word Renaissance was first put forward by the French historian Misley in 1855 to summarize16th century's "exploration of the world and mankind"; Since then, historians have had many different opinions on its interpretation. \x0d\\x0d\ Most people think that the Renaissance originated in Italy in the15th century and then spread throughout Europe. Renaissance represents the classical cultural connection between the west and ancient times (before the Middle Ages), and it is the absorption of Arab knowledge (especially mathematical knowledge). The Renaissance made people pay attention to the quality of life in this world (such as humanism). Renaissance is also a knowledge explosion caused by the application of printing and new technology in the fields of art, poetry and architecture. These new technologies have fundamentally changed the form and content of art and literature. During this period, this view holds that with the rise of communication and exploration, the Renaissance represents that Europe has changed from a stagnant pool to a turbulent river for a long time. Therefore, the Renaissance in Italy is usually regarded as the beginning of modernity. \ x0d \ x0d \ Marxist historians believe that the Renaissance was a "pseudo-revolution" in art, literature and philosophy. These changes only affected a small number of rich people, while the life of most European population remained basically unchanged compared with the Middle Ages. So they don't think the Renaissance is an important event. \ x0d \ x0d \ Today, most historians believe that the Renaissance represents a great change in rational thinking and thinking, not material changes. Perhaps the most important point of view for the Renaissance is that people living in the Renaissance think that they are living in a new era, an era completely divorced from the Middle Ages. \ x0d \ x0d \ Johan Huizinga (1872 _ 1945) acknowledged the Renaissance, but questioned whether it brought beneficial changes. He believed that the Renaissance was an era of decline from the Middle Ages, which destroyed many important things. For example, Latin, used by churches and others at that time, has developed greatly since classical times and is a living language. However, people who were obsessed with classical purity in the Renaissance thought that Latin contradicted its classical form, so the natural evolution of Latin stopped. Roberts. Lopez believed that the Renaissance was a period of economic depression. However, GeorgeSarton and LynnThorndike believe that the Renaissance slowed down the progress of science. \ x0d \ x0d \ Renaissance Italy-Cai Yuanpei Pictures \ x0d \ Humanism is a philosophical theory and a world view. Humanism is based on the interests, values and dignity of people, especially individuals. For humanitarianism, tolerance, non-violence and freedom of thought among people are the most important principles for people to get along with each other. \ x0d \ x0d \ Modern humanism began in the Enlightenment, in which humanism was regarded as the answer to moral problems independent of religion. In the humanism of the Enlightenment, the supernatural explanation was generally ignored, and people called this humanism "secular humanism". \ x0d \ x0d \ All major religions have humanism, where universal humanism is combined with the beliefs and traditions of this religion. \ x0d \ x0d \ Some humanistic movements believe that people need to attend ceremonies and rules and organize certain groups to meet this need. \ x0d \ x0d \ Humanism as a historical concept \ x0d \ x0d \ In the history of European history and philosophy, humanism is mainly used to describe the more advanced ideas in the Middle Ages from 14 to 16. Generally speaking, today's historians call the cultural and social changes in this period the Renaissance, while the educational reform movement is called humanism. The word \ x0d \ x0d \ humanism actually appeared very late. It comes from the Latin humanitas, which was used by Cicero, an ancient Roman writer. Philosophers in the German Enlightenment collectively called human beings Humanit? Humanists at that time called themselves humanists. \ x0d \ x0d \ and the word humanism did not appear until 1808. \ x0d \ x0d \ Definition \ x0d \ x0d \ There is no uniform definition of humanism, because many different people call themselves or are called humanists, and their views on the world and people may be very different. Some humanistic ideas are very contradictory. Among liberal democracy, Marxism–Leninism and Protestant or Catholic schools of thought, there are humanistic schools. Even in ancient Rome, there was a humanistic trend of thought that can be called today. Humanism at that time was of course very different from that of the Renaissance or the Enlightenment. The humanism of Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Friedrich Schiller is usually called historicism, while that of william von humboldt is completely different from that of the Enlightenment. Renaissance philosophy is regarded as the basis of thought, while Humboldt's science is regarded as the basis of thought.