The Development of Bronze Ware

The development of Chinese bronze culture is generally divided into three major stages, namely, the formation period, the heyday period and the transformation period.

Formative period refers to the Longshan era, 4,500 to 4,000 years ago; heyday that is, the Chinese Bronze Age, the era of Xia, Shang, Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn and the early Warring States period, the continuation of the time of about more than 1,600 years, that is, the traditional system of the Chinese culture of bronze age; the transition period refers to the end of the Warring States period - the Qin and Han Dynasties, bronze has been gradually replaced by iron, not only the number of large reduction, but also by the original ritual weapons and the use of ceremonial rituals, rituals and sacrifices, and the transformation of the Chinese culture. The original rituals and weapons and the use of ceremonial rituals, war activities and other important occasions into daily utensils, the corresponding types of ware, construction features, decorative art has also undergone a turning point in the change.

First, the formation period

4500 ~ 4000 years before the present Longshan era, equivalent to Yao, Shun and Yu legend era.

The ancient documents record that people began to smelt and cast bronze.

In the sites of the Longshan era in the Yellow River and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, bronze products have been found in dozens of sites through archaeological excavations.

From the available materials, the bronze objects in the Formative Period have the following characteristics:

1. Red copper and bronze coexisted, and brass appeared.

Dongxiang Linjia site in Gansu Province, unearthed a fan-cast bronze knife; Tangchengshan site in Hebei Province, Hebei Province, found two pieces of perforated red copper plaque ornaments; Dengfeng, Henan Province, Wangchenggang Longshan City, unearthed a bronze container containing 7% of tin fragments; Xiangfen, Shanxi Province, excavated in the Taosi cemetery, a complete brass bell, the Department of Red Copper; Jiaoxian, Shandong Province, two pieces of brass cones unearthed at the Sanlihe site; Qixia, Shandong Province, Yangjia Circle, unearthed brass Fragments.

The largest number of copper artifacts were found in the Qijia culture around Gansu, Qinghai and Ningxia, where several cemeteries have unearthed knives, awls, drills, rings and copper realms, some of which are bronze and some of which are red copper.

The production technology, some of which were forged and some of which were cast in Fan, was more advanced.

2. There are fewer varieties of bronzes, mostly belonging to the category of daily tools and life, such as knives, awls, drills, rings, bronze mirrors, decorations and so on.

But it should be recognized that people have been able to make containers.

In addition, in the Longshan culture common red or yellow ceramic quail, and flow mouth, belly crotch often imitation of the metal willow nail, if you think that this time the copper quail containers and the XiaShang bronze quail, Jennifer, jia containers function the same words, the time of the bronze has been in the or began to turn to the ceremonial apparatus.

3, generally small sites also unearthed copper products, the general population also embraced bronze products.

In addition, this period of bronze products are more simple and undecorated, that is, there are decorative bronze mirrors are only stars and stripes, triangles and other geometric decorations, never three generations of the mystery of the bronze decoration.

Second, the heyday period:

The heyday period that is the Chinese Bronze Age, including Xia, Shang, Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn and the early Warring States period, the continuation of the time about more than 1,600 years.

The bronzes of this period are mainly categorized into ritual instruments, weapons and miscellaneous weapons.

Musical instruments were also mainly used in the ritual activities of the temple.

Ceremonial vessels were used in ancient red tape rituals, either displayed in temples, or used for banquets and washing, and some were specialized in making bright vessels for martyrdom.

Bronze ceremonial vessels carry a certain degree of sanctity and cannot be used in ordinary life.

Of all the bronzes, ritual vessels are the most numerous and the most beautifully crafted.

Ritual instruments can represent the highest level of Chinese bronze craftsmanship.

The types of ritual vessels include cooking vessels, eating vessels, wine vessels, water vessels and idols.

The bronze vessels of this period are the most beautifully decorated, with a greater variety of decorations.

One of the most common patterns on bronzes is the taotie pattern, also known as the animal face pattern.

This pattern first appeared in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River 5,000 years ago, Liangzhu culture jade, Shandong Longshan culture inherited this pattern.

Taotie pattern, itself has a strong mystical color.

"Lv's Spring and Autumn Annals - the first knowledge" within the cloud "Zhou Ding with Taotie, head and body, eaters have not swallowed, the harm and its body", so, generally this animal face pattern called Taotie pattern.

Taotie pattern in the two Mile Head summer culture in bronze has been.

The Shang and Zhou dynasties Taotie pattern many types, some like a dragon, like a tiger, like a cow, like a sheep, like a deer; there are like a bird, like a phoenix, like a person.

During the Western Zhou Dynasty, the mysterious color of the bronze decoration gradually faded.

Dragons and phoenixes, is still the mother of many bronze patterns.

It can be said that many patterned floral motifs are actually derived from the two main types of motifs: dragon and snake, and phoenix and bird.

Cicada pattern is a common pattern in the Shang Dynasty and Western Zhou Dynasty, and in the Spring and Autumn Period, there are also deformed cicada patterns.

During the Spring and Autumn period, chi dragon motifs were prevalent and gradually dominated the scene, crowding out almost all other motifs.

Another outstanding feature of ancient Chinese bronzes is the exquisite craftsmanship, which shows the creative talent of ancient craftsmen.

The Wofan method of making bronzes by pouring and casting with a composite van made of pottery was fully developed in ancient China.

The selection of materials for the pottery modeling mold turned model, pattern engraving are extremely sophisticated, muddy casting, casting, casting, casting, stacked casting technology is very mature.

Subsequently developed without the need to cast the lost wax process technology, is undoubtedly a major advance in the bronze casting process.

Inlay on bronze to increase the beauty of this technology appeared very early.

Inlaid materials, the first is turquoise, this green stone, is still used in jewelry.

The second type is jade, there are jade aid go, jade leaf of the spear, jade blade of the axe and battle-axe.

The third type of meteorite iron, such as iron blade copper battle-axe, iron aid copper blade, identified, iron blade are Shuo iron.

The fourth kind is embedded red copper, which is used to form the animal pattern.

Spring and Autumn, Autumn and Warring States also used gold, silver to inlay decoration of bronze.

During the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the development of metallurgical casting technology was high, and there was a technical summary of the manufacture of bronzes in the book "Kaogongji".

The book on the production of bells and tripods, axe catty, Eagle halberd and other various objects used in bronze in the proportion of copper and tin made detailed provisions.

Because of the frequent wars, weapons casting has been rapid development.

In particular, Wu and Yue's swords were exceptionally sharp and famous all over the world, and there were some famous sword makers, such as Dry General, Ouji Zi, and so on.

Some of the swords have been buried for more than 2,000 years, but they can still cut through stacks of paper.

Some swords, such as the Yue Wang Goujian Sword, are exceptionally ornate with a certain chemical treatment on the surface to form a rust-proof diamond, scale or flame-shaped pattern.

Another feature of Chinese bronzes is that no portraits have been found so far.

Quite a few bronzes use human faces as decorations, such as the human face square tripod, human face battle-axe, etc., but these faces are not the faces of any particular person.

More artifacts are the overall image of a person, such as a human-shaped lamp or vessel seat; or the whole of a person as part of the artifact, such as the bell frame has a sword wearing human figure raised his hand to hold the beam, copper plate under a couple of humanoid vessel feet and so on, most of these human figures are men and women to be from the attire, and is not a specific maidservant's likeness.

Sichuan Guanghan Sanxingdui unearthed three-dimensional like, the human head, the size of more than normal people, are long ears and eyes, high nose and wide mouth, rich in mystery, should be mythological characters.

Tens of thousands of Shang and Zhou bronzes left inscriptions, these words, now generally called the gold text.

For historians play a role in proving and supplementing history.

Chinese bronze inscriptions, the text to cast more.

The characters that are concave are called yinwen, and a few characters are raised and called yangwen.

During the Shang Dynasty and the Western Zhou Dynasty, it can be said that inscriptions were cast, with only a very few examples of inscriptions carved with sharp tools.

In the late Western Zhou Dynasty, inscriptions that were entirely carved began to appear.

In the middle of the Warring States period, most of the inscriptions were already engraved, and even the three extremely important ceremonial vessels in the Han Tomb of King Zhongshan in Pingshan, Hebei Province, were carved by deed, with an exceptionally rounded knife, and of high artistic value.

The ancients believed that the bronze is extremely strong, the inscription can be passed on immortal, so the matter to be passed on for a long time must be cast on top of the bronze things.

Therefore, the inscription has become an important material for the study of ancient history today.

Third, the transition period;

The transition period generally refers to the period from the end of the Warring States period to the end of the Qin and Han dynasties.

After hundreds of years of wars of annexation and political, economic and cultural reforms aimed at enriching the country and strengthening the military, the feudal system was replaced by the county system, and a feudal society with centralized power was finally established, with the traditional ceremonial system completely dismantled, and iron products were widely used.

All areas of society underwent radical changes.

Bronze in the social life of the status of the gradual decline, most of the artifacts of daily use, but specific to certain bronze, exquisite works are still a lot.

Such as in Shaanxi Lintong Qin Shi Huang Mausoleum excavated two by bronze carriage.

The first ride on four horses, the car has a shed, the emperor is sitting.

These two carriages are bronze casting composition, size and actual proportion, extremely exquisite.

There are also a lot of gold and silver ornaments on the car and horse, painted throughout the body.

The second horse, 3.17 long, 1.06 meters high, can be said to be so far excavated to the huge shape, structure and the most complex bronze.

By the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, ceramics have been greatly developed, the role of social life is increasingly important, thus further sidelining the daily bronze vessels from the life.

As for weapons, tools, etc., this time iron has long been dominant.

The bronze in the Sui and Tang dynasties is mainly a variety of fine bronze mirrors, generally have a variety of inscriptions.

Since then, bronze, in addition to bronze mirrors, it can be said that there is no longer any development.