What are the characteristics of Nanfeng Nuo Dance?

Nanfeng Nuo dance, commonly known as "dancing Nuo", is a folk dance that gradually evolved after years of reform and innovation, following the ancient ritual of exorcising ghosts and epidemics. Nanfeng has a history, which began in the Han Dynasty. Nanfeng Nuo Dance is regarded as "the living fossil of China ancient dance" by Jiangxi Volume, a collection of Chinese folk dances, because of its simple movements, rigidity and primitive style. Let's take a look at the main features and historical origins of Nanfeng Nuo Dance! Nanfeng Nuo dance, commonly known as "dancing Nuo", is a folk dance that gradually evolved after years of reform and innovation, following the ancient ritual of exorcising ghosts and epidemics. Tracing back to the source, there are Nuo records in the written history of China. Oracle Bone Inscriptions in Yin Ruins has the word "Kou", which is an ancient weapon to kill ghosts indoors. The word "dance" is recorded in Oracle Bone Inscriptions, which is the image of a masked man. It shows that there was masked exorcism dance before Shang Dynasty. Later, it was recorded in The Analects of Confucius, Lu Chunqiu and Zhou Li. The Book of Rites describes Nuo in more detail. In the Han Dynasty, Zhang Heng's Ode to Tokyo also described the Nuo dance. From the Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, Nuo dance was a sacrificial dance to exorcise epidemic ghosts. After the Song Dynasty, Nuo dance added entertainment elements and gradually developed in a dramatic direction.

I. Historical origin

Nuo is a religious, artistic, social and cultural phenomenon with a long history in China traditional culture. Nanfeng Nuo Dance is known as "the living fossil of ancient folk dance in China". According to records, Wu Rui, the king of Changsha in the early Han Dynasty, preached in Nanfeng Xixiang. In the eighth year of Tang Kaiyuan (720), Nanfeng County moved here, and the Grand Ceremony of Tang Kaiyuan promulgated at that time promoted the spread of Nanfeng Nuo. The Song Dynasty is the development period of Nanfeng Nuo Opera. The indoor musicians and diaspora artists in the Song Dynasty brought the culture and art of Kyoto, which made Nanfeng Nuo Opera mature. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Nanfeng Nuo was further improved, and in the late Qing Dynasty, influenced by China traditional opera, "Xiang Nuo" was further entertained, and many new Nuo dance programs were compiled and performed. On the eve of the founding of New China, there were hundreds of Nuo classes in Nanfeng, scattered in various towns and villages.

1. development and evolution

(1) Han Dynasty

Nanfeng has a history, which began in the Han Dynasty. According to the Records of Jinsha Nuo in the genealogy of Yu Rebuild in Xixi Township, Nanfeng, "Hui (the author of this article) tasted the old records of the city records of the Song Dynasty. In the Han Dynasty, General Wu Rui was the King of Junshan. He once begged a thief from Chen Ping to stay in Junshan, and said to enriching the people,' There will be swords and swords in this place for decades, with towering military valleys and angry bells. Ji Bian also quoted Shimonoseki, Zhou Li, as saying, "Fang wants to drive God with his palm, bear skin with four eyes and Geyang shield, and all the epidemics will be eliminated. It can be seen that Nuo "dance" is to ward off evil spirits.

(2) Tang Dynasty

Under the system of Han Cheng in Tang Dynasty, the court Nuo ceremony was large in scale, and the Kaiyuan Grand Ceremony promulgated by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty made specific provisions on Nuo ceremonies in counties. In Nanfeng, the migration of population promoted the development of Nuo dance. It is recorded in "Rebuilding the Genealogy of Jinsha Jade" that at the end of the Tang Dynasty, Jade moved from Raozhou (now Poyang) to Nanfeng, and invited the god of Qingyuan Miao Dao Zhen Jun to move to Jinsha, "to set up a temple to worship, burn incense when old, and keep it as' exorcism'." He led more than a dozen disciples Meng Xiongrong, decorated with yi zhu and Zhu Shang, and held a shield to ward off the ominous, which was a lifelong habit. "

(3) Song Dynasty

Since the end of the year, new roles such as judge, Zhong Kui, little sister, land and kitchen god have appeared in Nuo ceremonies, and the elements of entertaining people have gradually increased. At the end of the Song Dynasty and the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty, Liu Tang, a native of Nanfeng, wrote the poem "Observing Nuo", saying that "the drums are crisp and ghosts and gods change into operas" (for the whole poem, see Wen Juan, Zheng Wen), and described in detail the performance of Nanfeng Nuo Dance Opera at that time.

(3) Ming Dynasty

In Ming Dynasty, folk Nuo was very active. According to "You's Wu Family Tree Reconstruction", during the Xuande period (1426- 1435), Wu Chaozong, a county magistrate, returned to his hometown to serve as the magistrate of Haiyang County, Guangdong Province, and was building Nuo temples and organizing Nuo classes. The well has been active ever since. In the 11th year of Zheng De in Ming Dynasty (15 16), the entry of "twelfth lunar month" in Jianchang Mansion Records shows that "children dance in the city with masks, like ancient Nuo instruments". At that time, Nuo dance had broken through the category of Nuo instrument and formed a kind of dance to entertain people and gods.

(4) After the Qing Dynasty

Since the Qing Dynasty, some Nanfeng Nuo dances have been infiltrated by other cultures, and martial arts movements in drama performances have been integrated into Nuo dance performances, while others have drawn content from legendary novels, fairy tales and folklore to create new programs.

Nanfeng Nuo Dance has been handed down from generation to generation from the Han Dynasty to the present, and has experienced the Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties.

(5) After the establishment of People's Republic of China (PRC).

After the founding of New China, Nanfeng Nuo Dance, with the attention of the party and the state, has been sent to excavate, arrange, study and innovate many times, and its ancient artistic appearance has taken on a new look. 65438-0953, Nanfeng Nuo Dance won the Jiangxi Classical Art Award and the Central South Folk Art Concert. 1954, the county held a Nuo dance performance, with 26 classes and teams participating. 1955, Chinese opera researcher Huang Zhinei and other Nanfeng visited Nuo dance; Subsequently, Sheng Jie, Secretary General of China Dance Art Research Association, and his party went to Nanfeng to investigate and collect data, which lasted 1 month. 1957 In March, the second national folk music and dance performance was held in Beijing, and the Ministry of Culture invited Nanfeng Youshi Nuo Dance to participate. In May of the same year, the film crew of Jiangxi News of Jiangxi Film Studio produced the album Nanfeng Nuo Dance. Professional literary and art groups at the central and provincial levels have also sent people to Nanfeng many times to collect folk songs, and created dance programs such as Celebrating Folk Music with a Covenant, Harvesting Music, and Creating the World with Nuo Dance Words. The traditional Nuo dances excavated and arranged by literary and art workers in this county and the folk world, as well as their newly-edited Nuo dances "King of Orange", "Racing", "Picking Up the Ears of Crops" and "Boundary Monument" have participated in folk world literary performances all over the country, regions, provinces and regions for many times, all of which have been well received. 1953, Nuo Dance in Kuoyuan Garden, Nuo Dance in Shuinan and Hehe Dance in Shuibei participated in the first folk art exhibition in Jiangxi Province, and won the classical art award. In the same year, they participated in the first folk art exhibition in Central and South China. From 65438 to 0957, You's Nuo Dance was invited by the Ministry of Culture to participate in the second national folk music and dance performance held in Beijing. In the same year, Jiangxi Film Studio came to Nanfeng County to make Nanfeng Nuo Dance Album. 1959 The newly choreographed Nuo dance "Orange King" was selected to participate in the second rural cultural performance in Jiangxi Province, among which 26 Nuo classes participated in the rural amateur cultural performance held in the Spring Festival of 1954. During the "Cultural Revolution", Nuo masks, costumes and props were regarded as "four old", all of which were burned, and Nuo dance activities were forced to stop.

(6) Status quo

After the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Nanfeng Nuo Dance has developed rapidly and Nuo instruments have been protected. In order to carry forward the national culture, Nanfeng Nuo dance is full of youth. 1985, there were as many classes in Nanfeng as 108. In the same year, Zhou Hezuo, a member of Zhoujiabao Nuo Dance Class, was accepted as a member of Chinese Dancers Association and was elected as the second director of Jiangxi Branch of Chinese Dancers Association. From 1986, the county Federation of Literary and Art Circles and the county cultural center jointly conducted a survey on Nuo dance, and in the same year, they completed the Information Book of Nanfeng Nuo Dance, which included Mountain Opening (Shitie Class), Lei Gong, Hehe, Paper Money and Nuo Gong. Kaitong, King Kong, God of Wealth, Kuixing Diandou, etc. 16 programs were incorporated into China folk dance and integrated into Fuzhou area. 1June, 989 Shuinan Village of Qiaobei Township became a farmers' Nuo Dance Art Troupe; In September of the same year, Nanfeng Nuo Dance "Nuo Wind" went to Beijing to attend the second China Art Festival and won the prize. 1992 The Nuo Dance Performance Team of Youshi Village, sanxi town, jointly organized by Jiangxi Branch of Chinese Dancers Association, Nanfeng County Federation of Literary and Art Circles and Nanfeng County sanxi town Government, gave a special performance for 100 domestic experts attending the Guangxi International Symposium on Nuo Opera, which once again shook the altar of Nuo Opera. Mr. Qu, the president of China Nuo Opera Research Association and a famous opera theorist, said: "You's Nuo Opera is indeed the oldest existing opera in China." Nanfeng Nuo Dance is known as "the living fossil of ancient dance in China", and Nanfeng County is also known as "the hometown of Nuo Dance".

Two. main content

(1) Nuo Temple

Nuo Temple is the habitat of gods (masks) and the main place for Nuo ceremonies. There are 65,438+07 in Pingxiang and 65,438+07 in Nanfeng, among which the Nuo Temple in Jinsha Village in the Northern Song Dynasty is the earliest recorded, and the Nuo Temple in Fanggan Village, which was relocated in Yongle period of Ming Dynasty (65,438+0403 ~ 65,438+0424), is well preserved, and it was in the Qing Dynasty. The gods worshipped in Nuo altar are different from place to place. Nanfeng is the true king of Qingyuan Henuo, Pingxiang is the general of Tang, Ge and Wednesday, Wanzai is the general of Ouyang Jin's family, and Yihuang and Le 'an Donghu Village are also the true kings of Qingyuan. In order to show respect for God, some places should hold "show off handsome" ceremonies on a regular basis, follow the example of dignitaries, and reserve ceremonial ceremonies, such as flags, gongs, umbrellas, drums and percussion, which are very spectacular.

(2) Nuo instrument

Nuo instrument is the basic form. Jiangxi Nuo ceremony follows the ancient ceremony, including Nuo (opening the box, leaving the hole, leaving the case), Nuo (jumping, jumping, dancing ghosts), Nuo (searching, sweeping the hall, walking quietly) and Nuo (sealing the box, dancing ghosts). Time usually begins on the first day of the first lunar month and ends a few days after the Lantern Festival (there are also several classes in February). "exorcism" is the focus of the whole ceremony. Nuo people wear ferocious masks and carry weapons, and under the irradiation of torches, they drive away evil spirits that endanger human beings along the door. The performance of this ceremony varies from place to place: Nanfeng Youshi Village "Sou Nuo" entered various halls and rooms with Zhong Kui and Shen Xiao in chains, retaining the original morphological characteristics of ancient Nuo "Sou Fang to drive away the epidemic". Chasing the King In Changjing Village, Wuyuan, the villagers chased the "King of Eighty" along the field path and asked him to shave his head with a mountain axe several times to ward off evil spirits and drive away epidemics, which showed people's desire for health and longevity. Liukeng Village in Le 'an dispelled the epidemic, Nuo people dressed as gods entered the room to search for "safe walking", villagers cleaned the roadway, cleaned up dirt and sprinkled lime and sulfur, which reflected the improvement of villagers' civilization.

Praying for reproduction is an important purpose of Nuo ceremony. Li Tuo's Chronicle of Qin Years in Tang Dynasty: "Every year is a ghost, and there are two old people in it. His masterpieces are Nuogong and Nuomu." These two Nuo gods are the reproductive worship gods of Nanfeng Nuo. If you dance Nuo, you have to dance Nuo in-laws. Some married people have to dance again in the new house in order to have children. Prop Nuozai holds a red egg and casts a penis, which is generally enshrined on the altar as a XiShen. As a reproductive admirer, there is also Jiro Pass. Jienuo in Shanggan village will dance Jiro's ritual dance of bowing and begging for children. Similar programs, Yihuang Shengang has "Gao Yuan Song Zi", and Lean Liukeng has "Scholar Dong Yong and the Seven Fairies". The masks of the wedding gods such as Yue Lao, Jin Hua and Yin Hua preserved in Pingxiang are also obviously related to the search for heirs.

(3) Key points of Nuo instrument

Protecting children is the focus of Nuo ceremony. During the Millennium Dance, the Great Bodhisattva "organized generals", and the viewers took their children and hid under the umbrella to ask for God's protection. In Zhongcun, Ningdu, there is a Nuo dance in September. Villagers celebrate the Double Ninth Festival, the full moon of children and the birthday of the elderly, hoping that children will live a long life. Nanfeng Nuo Dance not only has a "happy event" program to congratulate the birth of a child, but also has the custom of making a wish, worshiping a deed and fighting customs to ward off evil spirits and eliminate disasters for the child. When the Nuo temple in Youshi village is "searched", all the boys can climb the altar and watch it with Prince Nuo. The villagers said, "The prince protects the children from ghosts and gods.

Praying for a bumper harvest in agriculture is another important purpose of Nuo ceremony. Nanfeng Nuo God Nishikawa Guankou Jiro originally came from Li Bing and his son, the god of agriculture and water. There are statues of land in Nuo Temple, especially in Shanggan Village Nuo Temple, which is taller than real people, and the pattern of "White rabbit holding peach branches" is painted in front of the robe. Rabbits can be productive and peaches can ward off evil spirits. This symbol expresses the villagers' prayers for grain harvest and population reproduction. Praying for a bumper year is also manifested in the ceremony of the Spring Festival. According to the records of Jianchang County in Qing Dynasty, after the Spring Festival ploughing ceremony, "there were scenes of bamboo horses, big Nuo, He Shen and lions dancing in colorful clothes and masks." Nanfeng, which is under the jurisdiction of Jianchang Prefecture, still retains all the above Nuo dances, and the earliest "bamboo horse" dance is one-legged dance, which has the characteristics of "bending one-legged dance" in ancient rain-praying dance. Catching carp essence by otters is a Nuo dance based on the spring phenology of "Rex Sacrificing Fish" in the Book of Rites. The artist painted pockmarks on the carp mask, emphasizing that it is male, expressing the villagers' environmental awareness of not hurting the female livestock in spring. There are also records of Pingxiang Nuo dance in Qing Dynasty.

④ Jiangxi Nuo

The ritual of exorcising ghosts and epidemics and praying for prosperity in Jiangxi Nuo was later extended to praying for happiness, Naji, seeking wealth and so on. For example, "I wish every family happiness, the couple are safe, Tian He is ripe, pigs and cows are prosperous, and the grain is abundant. Six people are willing to live for generations"; "Those who seek an heir will have your son"; "The scholar is smart, rich and famous, and boarded the gold list early; Farmers, a seed fell into the mud and harvested 10,000 seeds; Those who do skills are invited at home and greeted at home; People who do business, one money is the foundation, 10 thousand money is the profit, and so on.

(5) Song and dance forms

Nuo ceremony can not be separated from song and dance forms, masks and costumes and other related artifacts. In order to increase entertainment and expand the mass base, Nuo Opera constantly absorbs other artistic nutrition, enriching the expressive forms of Nuo Opera art and the treasure house of China folk art, and Jiangxi Nuo Opera is an important part of this treasure house.

Nuo dance is the main performance form of Jiangxi Nuo dance, which is known as the "living fossil" of China dance. There are more than 200 traditional programs, including more than 90 in Nanfeng. Ritual dance is a kind of dance performed during exorcism. The dancers danced fiercely and mysteriously, and the atmosphere was mysterious and majestic. There are many entertainment dance programs, which come from myths and legends, folk stories, classical novels and secular life. Due to the different spreading years and the relationship between teachers and students, the performance styles are different, ranging from the genre of "Wen Nuo" with freehand brushwork, stretching movements, elegant dancing and ancient charm, to the genre of "Wu Nuo" with strong movements, distinct rhythm and martial arts skills. In the same class, because the program content is different, the performance has its own characteristics.

(6) Major plays

Jiangxi Nuo has many programs of heroic gods, such as the head array, prince, three generals, two kings versus mace, twelve pairs of broadswords, pioneer, green product, Yang Shuai, Shangguan Xiaguan tournament, vs Yan Liang, Zhang Fei offering a gun, etc. Jiangxi also has many Nuo opera programs, such as Wuyuan dance drama "Dancing Flowers", which tells the historical story of Qin Ershi Hu Hai poisoning his brother Fu Su for the throne. It consists of several programs, such as Yaksha Banning, Cao Bing Yuan Shuai, the Prime Minister delivering wine, and the death of the Prince. The scene is spectacular. Hua Guan Suo and Bao Sanniang, the opening story of a thousand years, is a folk story of Hua Bao's confrontation. Their duet content is basically the same as that in Ming Chenghua's rap "Thorn". Guangchang's Mongolian opera sings a legendary story, which has the characteristics of southern opera, primitive mask performance and Nuo opera.

(7) Nuo dance mask

Nuo mask is a symbol of Nuo culture, a carrier of gods in Nuo ceremonies, and the costumes of characters in Nuo dance. There are many names such as mask, idol, icon, helmet, ghost face, face shell and so on. There are more than 400 kinds and more than 3000 kinds of Nuo masks in Jiangxi. Pingxiang Nuo noodles are simple and vigorous, Wuyuan Nuo noodles are exaggerated and bizarre, and Nanfeng Nuo noodles are bright in color, which can be described as three characteristics of Jiangxi Nuo masks. Nanfeng has more than 2300 kinds of glutinous noodles with different shapes, including 120. The most distinctive mask is the mountain mask, which is ferocious and fierce. The image symbols such as horns, fangs, flaming eyebrows, golden eyes, sliced noodles, sword temples and bronze mirrors reflect the traces of the evolution of Nuo culture with Chiyou as the legendary side. The material of Nuo mask was originally made of copper, and later it was mostly carved from camphor wood or poplar wood. The color is elegant, showing the exquisite skills and national aesthetic taste of new and old folk artists. After some Nuo masks were carved, a ceremony was held to make them full of gods.

(8) Nuo culture

Nuo music, Nuo clothes and Nuo furniture are the important contents of Nuo culture in Jiangxi, with different forms and characteristics, and Nanfeng is even more colorful: from the accompaniment music, Nuo music retains the ancient ritual and music system of "connecting the gods with music", "beating drums to avoid epidemics" and "sending the gods with music"; Nuo dance music has developed greatly on the basis of absorbing folk music and traditional Chinese opera music. Besides the accompaniment of gongs and drums, there are drum music, percussion music, bamboo music and other forms. There are dozens of tunes to choose from, and the musical expression is very rich. From the perspective of Nuo dance costumes, on the one hand, it inherited the old system of "red scarf", "Zhu Shang" (red skirt) and "green coat" (green sleeve) in ancient Nuo dance, on the other hand, it developed the characteristics of "embroidered clothes" in Song Nuo dance, including red flowers and red sleeves. From the perspective of Nuo, there are hundreds of weapons and military appliances, ritual vessels, lanterns and candles, food offerings and daily necessities, which not only extend the armed props of ancient Nuo to drive away the epidemic, but also reflect the ancient civilization and etiquette and the changes in social life. In addition, Nuo customs and folk customs, stories, sacred words, hymns, ode to joy, auspicious words, couplets, inscriptions, spells and spells are also indispensable parts of Jiangxi Nuo culture.

Three. major feature

In the long process of inheritance and development, Nanfeng Nuo Dance has integrated anthropology, sociology, history, religion, folklore, drama, dance, aesthetics and other disciplines, and accumulated rich cultural heritage.

(1) Cultural factors of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism

Nanfeng Nuo Dance absorbed the cultural factors of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. First of all, they absorbed their gods system and strengthened the power of Nuo instruments. Jiangxi Nuo gods (masks) are Taoist gods and protectors, such as Taibai Venus, Zhenwu Emperor, Eight Immortals, Ma (Lingguan), Zhao (Lang), Guan (Gong), Wen (Qiong), and Liu Jia, as well as Tathagata, Maitreya, Guanyin, King Kong and Mu. There are also Confucian figures and heroic deities such as Kou Zhun, Fan Zhongyan, Bao Zheng, Qin, Weichi Gong, Hua Tuo and Sun Simiao. Second, they borrowed their etiquette system to enrich their rituals of exorcising ghosts and epidemics, such as Taoist fasting ceremonies and spells in Jiangxi Nuo and Confucian codes of conduct and etiquette music in Nanfeng Nuo. The third is to express its ideological content and expand the entertainment functions of Nuo dance and Nuo opera, such as exorcism, exorcism programs and Taoist five-element view of Jiangxi Nuo dance and Nuo opera, Buddhism's thought of seeking universal life and karma, Confucianism's official learning program and "Shinto" thought. Jiangxi Nuo is eclectic and has the characteristics of multi-religious culture.

(2) Ancient myths and legends

Nanfeng Nuo dance combines ancient myths and legends. Some myths are directly related to Nuo, such as Zhuan Xu's myth of driving away the son of epidemic ghosts, the myth of gods binding ghosts to feed tigers, the myth of Huangdi killing Chiyou because of his aversion to evil, and the myth of Huangdi taking his second princess Mo Mu as his side to protect his funeral. Some myth programs reflect the struggle between human beings and nature and society in ancient times, such as Pangu myth in Genesis, Ten-Day Shooting Myth in Houyi Shooting the Sun, Creation Myth of Fuxi Nuwa in Nuogong Nuopo, and High Seeking Myth in Jiro Fagong. The myths and legends in Jiangxi Nuo reflect the ancient historical and cultural image of China.

(3) The factors of the occurrence and development of drama.

Nanfeng Nuo dance contains the factors of the occurrence and development of drama. In the Song Dynasty, Zhu Yue said, "Nuo is ancient, but it's close to drama." In Nanfeng in the Southern Song Dynasty, there were not only the early Nuo opera performances described in the poem Look at Nuo, but also the earliest record of transplanting Yongjia opera so far. Qingyuan Zhenjun Nuo, introduced from Nanfeng in the Song Dynasty, is the Yihuang drama god recorded by Tang Xianzu in the Ming Dynasty. Nuo Dance and Meng Opera in Xintian, which are popular in Nanfeng, are inextricably linked with Meng Opera in Guangchang in the Ming Dynasty. The ceremony of opening a new platform in Jiangxi absorbed the ceremony of Nuo sacrifice in Jiangxi; Before the local opera performance, Jia Guan, Kui Xing and Ling Guan obviously came from Nuo dance. Gan Nuo's programs, such as Mulian Saving Mother, Gu Chenghui, Tianmen Array and Shuijinmanshan, are also quoted from traditional operas or puppet shows. These provide fresh materials for the study of Nuo opera art.

(4) China folk culture.

Nanfeng Nuo Dance absorbed China folk culture. Nuo culture in rural areas is combined with folk customs to form Nuo culture. Nuo custom in Jiangxi includes many cultural phenomena such as material Nuo, social Nuo and spiritual Nuo, such as Nuo temple decoration, exorcism in the house, exorcism in children, Nuo rice disaster, Nuo epidemic and Nuo dance. Jiangxi Nuo is mostly active during the Spring Festival, and its folk culture is strong. In Nanfeng, hundreds of Nuo classes go out to dance, send blessings to welcome good luck, entertain the gods and people, contact all ethnic groups and build a harmonious neighborhood. Before and after the Lantern Festival, villagers combined Nuo dance and Nuo instrument with traditional opera performances, lantern entertainment and folk etiquette. Indulge in pleasure and vent their feelings, satisfying the expectations of the broad masses for a better future.

Nanfeng Nuo Dance also created its own inheritance system. Rural Nuo is the product of farming culture, and all the participants are farmers. There are more than 3,000 peasant artists in Nanfeng alone, and they have formed ethnic Nuo classes, village community classes and private classes according to the situation of each village. Disciples are not limited. There are 5 students in one class and 24 students in one class. We live in harmony and treat each other as equals. Leaders are promoted according to their qualifications, or elected by the whole people, or decided by drawing lots. There are names such as uncle, Andrew, leader, sitting case, old position and long position. Management methods are adapted to local conditions, including hereditary surnames, taking turns to be responsible, and various forms of participation.