What are the protectionist policies?

The initial general characteristics of trade protectionism can be summarized as: 1. Specific background of the times. Trade protectionism in different historical periods has a specific background. Mercantilist trade protection theory adapts to the capital accumulation in the preparation period of capitalism in15-17th century, and maintains the trade surplus and accumulates monetary wealth by awarding prizes and restricting entry; The traditional trade protection theory represented by Hamilton and Liszt represents the requirements of economically backward countries to protect their infant industries and realize industrialization through tariff barriers during the period of free competition of capitalism. /kloc-from the late 0/9th century to the pre-World War II, the super-protectionism of developed countries adapted to the monopoly capital to expand the international market share, export excess capacity and transfer the economic crisis. The new trade protectionism originated in the United States after World War II is the product of maintaining economic balance in western developed countries under the background of the continuous development of international multilateral free trade system led by GATT/WTO and the accelerating process of economic globalization, and it is the trade protectionism that constantly changes its own forms in the accelerated process of trade liberalization. 2. Specific policy objectives. Old trade protectionism is a theory or trend of thought that economically backward countries promote the rapid growth of some young and weak industries or departments by implementing protective measures, and finally withdraw protection and move towards free competition. The purpose of protection is not to protect, so the old trade protectionism has not changed the general trend of international trade liberalization; New trade protectionism refers to a theory or trend of thought that developed countries safeguard their political and economic interests by widely implementing protective measures in order to maintain their original economic advantages. Like the super protectionism before World War II, its purpose is not to cultivate new free competition ability, but to consolidate and strengthen the monopoly of domestic and foreign markets, and its policies and actions affect the general trend of international trade liberalization. 3. A wide range of protected objects. The old trade protectionism protected immature industries or weak emerging industries, mainly involving traditional commodities and agricultural products (quotes, information and comments). On the one hand, the protection object of new trade protectionism is China's declining monopoly industries, such as textile industry; On the other hand, it is a highly developed and highly competitive industry in China, such as financial industry, so the scope of protection extends not only to all areas of goods trade, but also to services, technology, investment, intellectual property and other fields. 4. Protective measures of the system. The old protectionism mainly used tariff barriers. However, under the GAlT/WTO system, after eight rounds of multilateral trade negotiations, the average tariff of each country dropped from 36% in 1948 to about 4% in 2000, and the role of tariff protection was decreasing day by day. Therefore, the new trade protectionism has turned its policy means to non-tariff and systematized it, which is mainly manifested as follows: First, it has strengthened the use of non-tariff measures. According to the original statistics of GATT, the number of non-tariff barriers in the world has increased from more than 800 in the late 1970s to more than 3,000 in 75 categories in 8 categories. The second is to legalize non-tariff measures through legislation. For example, the trade reform bill of the United States 1974 first confirmed the legal status of exception clauses, anti-dumping and countervailing clauses; Third, the new trade protectionism also has incentives and restrictions on entry, but the focus has shifted from restricting imports to encouraging exports, from passive defense in the domestic market to active attack in foreign markets, forming a series of systematic systems from export subsidies, export credits and national credit guarantees to the establishment of export processing zones. 5. Discriminatory policy orientation. With the regionalization and integration of economy, new trade protectionism is no longer based on national trade barriers, but tends to regional trade barriers, that is, from national trade protection to regional trade protection; Protective trade policy, which implements free trade in the region, but discriminates against other countries outside the region. For example, the EU not only establishes trade barriers through customs union and agricultural policies, but also extends the scope of regional protection to associated countries (such as Lomé preferential tax agreement for 46 developing countries); The establishment of NAFTA also marks the retreat of the United States from one-sided global free trade to regional free trade that emphasizes "reciprocity"; Some developed countries have prejudice against certain countries or groups of countries, and deliberately deviate from the non-discrimination principle of GATT/WTO and implement double standards when dealing with trade disputes. Generally speaking, new trade protectionism takes non-tariff measures as the main means, and with the help of domestic legislation and international consultation and coordination, it forms a unique form of government intervention in trade activities under the multilateral trading system.