Since the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, China's ideological world is the first to develop a strange color, and at that time has opened the door of the scholar's pre-political. Since the Qin Dynasty, China has had a formal
style of scholarly governmental organization.
Shaw Kung-kuen, History of Chinese Political Thought,
Page 5.6: Therefore, in terms of Confucius's behavior, his greatest achievement was to establish an academic discipline based on the old news that a scholar and a gentleman should be able to advance in the world of work
, and then to teach the common people with this academic discipline to cultivate a new ruling class based on knowledge, virtue and ability. However, it can be so,
although by their own sensitivity to the sky, half also by the influence of the times. If the time was not ripe, who would be able to understand and accept the most important words of Confucius
? Confucius was born in the twenty-second year of Duke Xiang of Lu, and died in the sixteenth year of Duke Liao, at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, at the beginning of the transition from a feudal world
to an autocratic one. The rites of the Zhou had been abolished but not yet extinguished, and the classes were still in ruins. Confucius, who had been nurtured by the old society and found a new meaning in the old system, wanted to use his discovery as a tool to improve and revitalize the old order. However, at that time
, the public officials might not be able to use his words, so he passed on his teachings to the common people, so that those who had completed their studies could be employed by the public officials and have a chance to be useful
. At that time, there must have been commoners' children who wanted to be promoted in the field of drains and who had not yet found their way to the field of drains, and who were taught by Confucius, and who were enthusiastic to
go to them. Therefore, the main content of Confucius' scholarship is political theory and governance. The method of practicing the Way was teaching, and its purpose was politics.
Page 57: In terms of the work of leveling the classes, Confucius was no less than Chen Shui Wu Guang, and the first to enjoy his success were Shang, Han, Su
, and Zhang, "heresy" and "heresy" of the stream of Asia.
Wang Dahua, A Series of Essays on the History of Chinese Political Thought, Pamir Bookstore, first edition, 1969, reprinted 1982
Page 37: Confucius taught the six arts, which were originally the skills for a scholar to be in political office: to know books and numbers to be a military officer, to know rituals and music to be a prime minister, and to practice archery and defense to be a general. Therefore, the disciples he taught were mostly skilled in politics.
What were the schools of thought of the Hundred Schools of Thought during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods?
Founders or main figures of the schools
Confucianism, Confucius
Daoism, Li Er
Moism, Mo Zhai
Lawyer, Li Yul
Namesake, Huishi
Soldier, Sun Bin
Yin and Yang, Zou Yan
Longitudinal and Hengjian, Su Qin
Miscellaneous, Lv Buwei
Agriculturalist Xu Xing
Novelist Qu Yuan
Besides these, they are not very famous, so they are called "Nine Streams", and the three religions and nine streams come from here
In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States period when hundreds of vassal states were fighting each other and eating each other's flesh and blood, Taoism, Confucianism, the School of Military Science, the School of Mohist, and the School of Law appeared, A hundred schools of thought contended for supremacy in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States period, and the works of Zuo Zhuan and the Spring and Autumn Period, which recorded the history of the time in detail, were also born one after another. This "Hundred Schools of Thought" was nearly 2,000 years earlier than the Renaissance in Europe.
The Hundred Schools of Thought of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods (770-221 BC). Its content includes: 1, "learning in the government" situation of the break, so that academic down to the people, the formation of the Hundred Schools of Thought; 2, the Hundred Schools of Thought from the state of Lu Confucianism and Mozambique, to the Confucianism, Mozambique and Yang, the three schools of the situation; 3, the transformation of the Confucianism to the legal system characterized by Wei's school of the West River; 4, to the Ch'uei culture of Chen, Song as the center of the Lao-Thuang school as the right wing of the Taoist; 5, Qi, Qi, Qi and the right wing of the Taoist; 5, Qi, Qi and the right wing of the Taoist. The right wing of Taoism; 5, the Jixi Academy of Qi's Huang-Lao school is the left wing of Taoism; inclusive Jixi school, so that the Hundred Schools of Thought developed to a climax, which has Tian Qi Legalism, Yin-Yang, military, and famous; in the struggle of the various schools of thought also interact with each other; 6, the Lü's Spring and Autumn Periodic Review of the school of miscellaneous schools of thought, reflecting the Hundred Schools of Thought tends to converge; the establishment of the Qin Empire, marking the end of the Hundred Schools of Thought.
The Spring and Autumn Period was a period of disintegration of slavery and transition to feudalism in China, and the Warring States Period was the beginning of feudal society. The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period underwent dramatic social changes, and there were great shifts in class relations. In the middle and late Spring and Autumn period, with the destruction of slavery, new feudal relations of production began to emerge, and the landlord class and the peasant class were gradually formed. By the Warring States period, these two classes constituted the two antagonistic classes in feudal society. However, the slave-owning class still existed, as did a large number of government and private slaves. Individual craftsmen and merchants had considerable numbers in the towns. Along with the development of social production, the old "government schools" became private schools, and there were more people with knowledge and learning. They belonged to various classes and strata, and appeared as "scholars", arguing about various academic issues such as astronomy, geography, mathematics, etc., as well as having their own ideas about the political system. This led to the formation of the "Hundred Schools of Thought" and the "Hundred Schools of Thought".
"Zhuzi" refers to the thinkers and their writings that reflected the interests of various classes and strata in the field of thought during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The Han Book - Art and Culture Zhi" said: "Zhuzi one hundred and eighty-nine", to take its number called "Zhuzi Hundred Schools". The main ones are Laozi, Confucius, Mozi, Yang Zhu, Xu Xing, Shang Yang, Shen Buhai, Mencius, Xunzi, Zhuangzi, Han Fei Zi, Huishi, Gongsunlong, Tian Pian, Shen to, Song Li, Yin Wen, Guan Yin, Zou Yan, Zhang Yi, Su Qin, Lv Bu wei, Sun Wu, Wu Qi, Sun Bin, Wei Liao and so on.
The "Hundred Schools of Thought" were recorded in the books of the Warring States period, such as Mencius, Zhuangzi, Xunzi, Hanfeizi, and Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals. Ancient historians, such as Sima Tan in the early Western Han Dynasty, believed that the "Hundred Schools of Thought" mainly referred to "Yin and Yang", "Confucianism", "Mohist", and "Law". "Yin and Yang", "Confucianism", "Mohism", "Law", "Names", "Taoism" six schools. Liu Xin at the end of the Western Han Dynasty and Ban Gu in the Eastern Han Dynasty believed that it mainly refers to: "Confucianism", "Taoism", "Yin-Yang", "Law", "Names", "Names", and "Fathers". ", "name", "ink", "vertical and horizontal", "miscellaneous", "Nong" and "Novel". Sometimes the "novelists" are omitted, and it is believed that "there are only nine of them that can be viewed".
The traditional study of the hundred schools of thought on the division of the hundred schools, both in terms of standards and in the specific claims of the hundred schools, are inappropriate. Hundred schools of thought is essentially our ancient schools of thought due to political ideological differences in the academic debate. The hundred schools of thought should be divided into political thought as the standard. The hundred schools should be divided into ten schools of virtue, etiquette, law, Confucianism, filial piety, Mohammedanism, art, righteousness, absolute equality, and the theory of no ruler. The nature of the Hundred Schools of Thought is the transition from the feudal lordship system to the unified centralized system in ancient China. The Hundred Schools of Thought began in the late Spring and Autumn period with the founding of the private school by Confucius, and ended with the adoption by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty of Tian mole's "suppression of the Yellow Book and reverence for Confucianism". When exploring the Hundred Schools of Thought, don't overlook the Hundred Schools of Thought.
The Hundred Schools of Thought of Ancient China is a very significant event in the academic history of ancient China. It inherited the Xia, Shang and Zhou academic dynasties, and opened the Qin, Han, Six Dynasties, Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties of thought for more than two thousand years. Scientific understanding of the Hundred Schools of Thought is important not only for the in-depth study of the Hundred Schools of Thought itself, but also for the reflection of traditional culture as a whole. However, the traditional theoretical view of the Hundred Schools of Thought so far, whether in the division of the Hundred Schools of Thought, or in the nature of the Hundred Schools of Thought, the starting and ending points and other issues, there are serious problems. This article does not want to talk about this new view.
Confucianism: the founder is Confucius, the core of his thought is "benevolence". The second representative is Mencius, who formally perfected Confucius' ren into "benevolent government", which is the core of Mencius' thought. The representative texts of the two are the Analects and the Mencius.
Filial piety family: The representative document of the filial piety family is The Book of Filial Piety by Anonymous. The central idea of the Xiaojing is "filial governance", i.e. "to rule the world through filial piety". In the past, some people in the theoretical field thought that the Book of Filial Piety was a general work on ethical piety, which is not true.
Dejia: Originally a political ideology of the early Western Zhou, its connotation was fundamentally transformed from the end of the Western Zhou to the Eastern Zhou. At the beginning of the Eastern Zhou, as evidenced by Zang Ai Bo's famous "Treatise on Virtue" (5); and the "Virtue of the Way" and "Zhuangzi", which came out during the Warring States period, are representative of its literature.
Ritualism: It is a kind of political thought that germinated in the late Western Zhou and became popular in the early and middle Eastern Zhou. Some famous politicians in the Eastern Zhou period, such as Guan Zhong, Zi foul, Cao Yu, ZiYan, YanZi, etc. all advocate the rule of etiquette, especially ZiYan and YanZi, but also the famous "etiquette theory" (6) respectively. In the late Warring States period, the important representative of ritual as the core of thought is Xunzi.
FaJia: It was a kind of political thought that appeared in the middle and late Spring and Autumn period. It first sprouted in Zheng, and its founder was Deng Qie. The first one to "cast the book of punishment" was Zi Chan (Zi Chan was a ritualist in the early stage, but turned to Legalism in the later stage), followed by Fan Xuanzi of Jin, Zhao Yang, and others, who "cast the tripod of punishment". The important representative of Legalism in the Warring States period was Shen Zhi, whose masterpiece was "Shen Zi"; later, Wu Ming's "Jing Fa" also belonged to the literature of Legalism, etc. In the past, the theorists considered "Jing Fa" as a document of Legalism. In the past, the theoretical world that "the law" is a Taoist work, which is from the philosophical point of view, is not true.
Moism: The founder was Mo Zhai at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, and the core of his thought is "righteousness". In the past, some people in the theoretical world thought that the core of Mozi's thought was "love", which is not well-founded.
The Artists: The founder was Shen Buhai (申不害), whose ideology centered on art, and whose masterpiece was Shenzi (申子). In the past, the theorizing that Shen Zi belonged to the Legalist school is not correct. Shen Zi himself claimed that his academic thought was "art", and the people of Qin and Han Dynasty always said "Shen Zi's art".
Yi Jia: The founder was Han Fei. What is the difference between Han Fei's "righteousness" and Mozi's? The most obvious point is that Mozi's "righteousness" includes economic interests, such as "Mozi - Jing Shang" says: "Righteousness is also profit." Han Fei's "righteousness", on the other hand, completely rejects profit. The masterpieces of the School of Righteousness include Han Fei Zi and Gongyang Chunqiu (The Spring and Autumn Annals of the Gongyangs). (7)
The concept of absolute equality: the founder was Xu Xing. According to Mengzi Tengwengong, Xu Xing believed that the ruler of a country should be absolutely equal to the people, "plowing before eating, weaving before clothing", and abolish the commodity economy, etc. This was the earliest concept of absolute equality in ancient China. This is the earliest view of absolute equality in ancient China.
The theory of no ruler: the founder was Wu Ji. It is written in "Mozi - Lu Question": "There is Wu Ani, a despicable person in the south of Lu, who tries to cultivate in winter and summer, comparing himself to Shun." "Comparing himself to Shun" means "I am the king of the country", which is the earliest anarchism in ancient China. This is the earliest anarchism in ancient China. However, in ancient Chinese language, it should be called "monarchism".
The above ten, strictly speaking, can be categorized into eight. Because "filial piety" can be incorporated into Confucianism, "righteousness" can be incorporated into the art. "Rule the world with filial piety" idea germinated in Confucius, perfected in the "Xiaojing", "Xiaojing" to Confucius as the forefather, its basic system of thought and "benevolence" is very close, so we can think that "filial piety" is a branch of Confucianism. Therefore, it can be considered that "filial piety" is a branch of Confucianism. The founder of "righteousness" was Han Fei, who was regarded by theoretical circles in the past as a legalist, or a master of law, art, and power. In fact, although Han Fei was a legalist, he was also an artisan, and he himself believed that art was more important than law. Therefore, the basic tendency of Han Fei's thought should be "art", that is, it belonged to the Shenzi artisan. Moreover, Han Fei's "righteousness" is, in principle, a transformation of the "art", so it can be considered that "righteousness" is a branch of the art school of thought.
In the past, the theories that the Hundred Schools of Thought had been established until the unification of the Qin Dynasty are questionable. Qin's unification, although the realization of the ancient Chinese feudal lord system to the county system of transition, but this transition is a failure, failed to make the ancient Chinese unity centralized system into a stable state. After the death of Qin, Xiang Yu and Liu Bang successively restored the feudal system. Moreover, the Qin's "burning of books and burying of scholars" was not an effective way to solve the ideological problem. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, a hundred schools of thought were again in contention: Lu Jia wrote the New Book; Jia Yi, Wang Zang, and Zhao ò all tried to change the system by "promoting ritual and music"; Chao Qiu used "art" to cut down the feudal system; Yuansheng used Confucianism to fight against "Huang Lao"; Dong Zhongsheng used Confucianism to fight against "Huang Lao"; and Dong Zhongsheng tried to change the system by "burning books and burying scholars". Huang Lao"; Dong Zhongshu called for "great unification" with "the great righteousness of the Spring and Autumn Annals"; Emperor Wen "traveled widely to study" and set up doctoral programs for "The Book of Filial Piety", "The Book of Mencius", and "The Book of Erya". The Emperor of Wen "traveled widely to learn", and set up a doctorate in "Xiaojing", "Mengzi" and "Erya". Once again, a hundred flowers blossomed, although there is no new ideas, but also belongs to the nature of the Hundred Schools of Thought. The resurgence of the Hundred Schools of Thought at the beginning of the Han Dynasty was the preparation of public opinion for the transition of the ancient Chinese feudal lordship system to a unified centralized system. Therefore, the end of the Hundred Schools of Thought in the unification of the Qin Dynasty can not be said.
Seven, the hundred schools of thought in the process of the hundred schools of thought
In the past, the theoretical community in the discussion of the hundred schools of thought, most of the eye on the hundred schools of thought, rarely talk about the hundred schools of thought, this research method is not proper.
The Hundred Schools of Thought is an integral part of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Although the Hundred Schools of Thought is in principle the expression of their own views and criticism of the views of others, it also includes the absorption of certain ideas of other schools of thought. For example, Xunzi, although the ritual as the core of thought, but also heavy law and respect for Confucius, so that some people will be treated as a legalist, and others will be treated as Confucianism. That is to say, the hundred schools of thought have reservations about overcoming the controversy, and there is absorption in the controversy, and the absorption is for the sake of better controversy. The Hundred Schools of Controversy itself also shows that each of the contending schools is academically one-sided, and only by absorbing each other can they complement each other and perfect their own doctrines. For example, Mozi in reply to Cheng Zi's "non-Ru, why call it Confucius also", said: "is also when and can not be changed. Now the bird heard the hot drought of worry is high, the fish heard the hot drought of worry is down, when this although Yu Tang for the plan, will not be easy to carry on. The bird and the fish can be said to be foolish, but Yutang is still in the clouds because of this. Now Zhai had no claim to Confucius?" (13)
The Hundred Schools of Thought is an indispensable part of the Hundred Schools of Thought. The hundred schools of thought in the early and middle period, mainly manifested in the competition, and the late period is mainly manifested in the merging. Such as the late Warring States period two government-run academic centers, Qi's "Jixia" and Qin's "Lv Buwei's group of disciples", their academic activities, basically engaged in a hundred merging. The representative work of Jixia school is "Guanzi", which has the ideas of virtue, etiquette, and legalism, but with the "rule of etiquette" as the main; Lu Buwei's group's representative work is "Lv's Spring and Autumn Annals", which contains even more varied academic ideas: virtue, etiquette, legalism, art, filial piety, righteousness and so on, so that some people mistakenly refer to it as a miscellaneous school. In fact, this is due to the lack of understanding of its dominant ideas, and there is no such thing as a miscellaneous school. Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals is dominated by the idea of "virtue", and the rest play a supporting role.
The form of the merging of the hundred schools of thought is the theoretical merging and the practical merging. Theoretically, the three schools of thought, ritual, virtue, and art, have done a better job. Ritualists, such as the previously cited Xunzi and Guanzi; Virtueists, such as the previously cited Lüshi Chunqiu; and Artists, such as the previously cited Gongyang Chunqiu and Chunqiu Fanlu. Confucianism did less well, but Confucianism incorporated the Five Classics and the various Biographies into its canon, so that it was also richer in content, and basically also included the ideas of rites, virtues, arts, and righteousness. The practical merging refers to the fact that the rulers at that time, out of their own needs, simultaneously set up several kinds of writings with different ideas as sutras, which served as the dominant as well as the auxiliary ideas for the rule of the country. For example, in the early Han Dynasty, "the rule of Huanglao", had been the legal family's "by the law", "weighing", "the original", "ten scriptures" and Laozi's "Virtue of the Taoist scriptures" for the scriptures; the period of Emperor Wu Di, set the "five scriptures" Dr., combined with the "Analects of Confucius", "filial piety scriptures" for the "seven scriptures" and so on, all of these are in the practical merging of hundreds of streams.
The merging of the hundred schools occupies a very important position in the hundred schools of thought. Controversy is only to explore the problem, the merger is to solve the problem, only the organic merger of the hundred schools of thought, is the final solution to the problem of the fundamental way. The reason why Qin failed to solve the main problems of the society at that time and put an end to the Hundred Schools of Thought, one of the important points is that it refused to merge the Hundred Schools of Thought by burning books and burying scholars in a pit, and absolutely ruled the country by the art of Shen, Shang, and Han, which led to its demise. Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty solved this problem by combining the hundred schools of thought with reality. Such as Emperor Wu: in the political ideology of Confucianism, although highlighting filial piety, but the rest of the Six Classics play a supporting role; institutional dual-track system, both absorbed the county system of Confucianism, but also did not completely abandon the moral, Confucianism, etiquette, law, filial piety and other families of the feudal system; the main father Yan's "Pui En Order", both Confucian benevolence and filial piety ideas, but also contains a Confucian art of the "art", "art", "art", "art", "art", and so on. "art", "righteousness" and other theories; economic agriculture and commerce, both Confucian, law, virtue, etiquette and other schools of agriculture and commerce, but also has not completely abandoned the "fraudulent agriculture and commerce"; ideological In terms of ideology, there are Confucianism, law, virtue, ritual and other ideological freedom, but also to a certain extent retained the ideological confinement of the Warlock; education and culture, there are Confucianism's school, but also the Warlock's "officials as teachers", such as "filial piety" and "election of the three old men", and "the three old men". The "election of filial piety and honesty" and the "election of the three old men" were used to set an example for the people. This is very different from the Qin Dynasty, which was politically governed only by the ideas of the artists Shen, Shang and Han, and which absolutely practiced counties and counties, economically swindled the farmers and extinguished the merchants, ideologically engaged in authoritarianism, and educationally "took officials as teachers". It can be seen that to solve the main problems of Chinese society at that time, without the organic merger of a hundred, in any case, is impossible.