What are the manifestations of China's ancient literary works?

The Standard of Dividing Style and the Division of Ancient Style

There are three main criteria for the ancients to divide the style: 1, the language form of the article; 2. The content of the article; 3. The scope of application of the article.

According to these three standards, ancient literary styles can be divided into three categories:

Prose; 2. Poetry; 3. Parallel prose

Categories of ancient prose:

(1) stone

History, also known as historical prose, has three main types:

A: chronological style

Chronological historical prose originated in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, and was then called Spring and Autumn Annals. At that time, every vassal state had its own "Spring and Autumn Period". What we can see today is Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals. There are three biographies of Ram, Ram, Ram and Ram in Spring and Autumn Annals, which are collectively called Three Biographies of Spring and Autumn Annals.

Chronological historical prose has the greatest influence on Zuo Zhuan and Zi Tong Zhi Jian.

The characteristics of chronological historical prose are: narrating its ins and outs according to the original procedure of event development, so as to facilitate readers to understand the cause and effect of the occurrence and development of events and the relationship between historical events and their stages.

The shortcomings of chronological historical prose are: it is not conducive to the centralized description of characters; An event often takes a long time and is scattered in different times. It takes a long time for readers to understand its comprehensiveness; Some characters have no beginning and no end, and some events are ignored.

B. Biography

Biographical historical prose originated from Sima Qian in the Western Han Dynasty, and Historical Records is the first work in this field. What we usually call "twenty-four histories" or "twenty-five histories" belong to biographical historical works.

The characteristics of this genre: historical events are reflected by the activities of characters, and biographical historical prose has an important influence on the development of ancient novels, stories and other literary forms. Strange Tales from a Lonely Studio written by Pu Songling in Qing Dynasty, legends of Tang and Song Dynasties, are all deeply influenced by this genre. The ancients called novels "unofficial history" and often called novels biographies. Such as Li Gongzuo's biography of Conan, Bai Xingjian's biography of Li Wa and so on.

Third, the chronicle of the original body

This style originated from Yuanshu in the Southern Song Dynasty. According to the materials provided by Zi Tong Zhi Jian, Yuan Shu wrote Tong Jian Chronicle, which summarized the history of 1300 years into 239 themes. It is characterized by taking events as the main line and collecting relevant materials. For example, "Three clans divided into Jin", "Qin merged into six countries", "Emperor Gao destroyed Chu" and "Seven Kingdoms Rebellion", and then arranged by year. This genre has certain advantages, which is convenient for readers to understand the overall situation of an event and a problem. Zhang Xuecheng, a historian in the Qing Dynasty, said that this genre of works "talks less about biographies and chronologies". However, this genre also has shortcomings. It highlights the main events, while some general events are not reflected and have been deleted.

After Yuan Shu, some people compiled this genre of history books, such as Chronicle of Zuo Zhuan, Chronicle of Song Dynasty, Chronicle of Yuan History, Chronicle of Shi Next Year, Chronicle of Qing History and so on.

Chronological style, biographical style and chronological style have their own advantages and disadvantages for reference.

(2) About the text

Argumentative writing is argumentative writing. It is characterized by clear arguments, credible arguments and strict logical reasoning. Political theory, literary theory, historical theory, academic papers, etc. All belong to argumentative papers.

The essays in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period are quite complete, and the so-called essays by hundred schools of thought or a hundred schools of thought contend are all essays. There were two main forms of essays at that time: one was quotations, such as The Analects of Confucius; One is a collection of essays, such as Mozi, Zhuangzi, Xunzi, hundred schools of thought and Lv Chunqiu. These collections marked the beginning of a golden age of prose in the pre-Qin period. Among them, Mozi occupies an important position in the history of prose development. From Mozi, argumentative writing began to pay attention to the tail, structure and level, and the method of argumentative writing was also more rigorous. In addition, Zhuangzi is good at explaining profound philosophy with fables; Xunzi is strict and honest, good at argument; "When you come, be safe" stirs people's hearts and is good at refuting; These essays have a great influence on later generations.

Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, expository writings have made new progress, not only a large number of individual expository writings have appeared, but also the genres of expository writings tend to be diversified. More important and commonly used are the following;

1, open

Theory is discussion, and its logical way is mainly argumentation. The task of theory is to prove the right or wrong of a problem, a person or something. Jia Yi's On Qin is generally regarded as the earliest prose of Qin Dynasty in China. The rest, such as Fan Shen's theory of deification, Liu Zongyuan's theory of feudalism, Su Xun's theory of six countries and Su Shi's theory of Jia Yi, are also famous essays in ancient China.

Step 2 say

Saying is explanation, and its reasoning mode is mainly explanation. Its task is to clarify and explain the truth of things and problems. The genre of "Shuo" can be large or small, but it is generally not used to comment on people and major political issues. However, sometimes the boundary between "saying" and "discussing" is not very clear. For example, there is no essential difference between Liu Zongyuan's Tian Shuo and Liu Yuxi's Tian Lun.

3. Debate (Debate Competition)

Discrimination is characterized by refuting a wrong argument or dialectical certain facts. It is an important job to distinguish between right and wrong and between true and false. For example, Han Yu's "Taboo Debate" and Liu Zongyuan's "East Ye Feng Debate" are both famous debating styles.

4. Original text

The original intention is to explore the source. It is to fundamentally investigate and discuss a theoretical proposition, political system or social customs. Generally speaking, the genre of "Yuan" is relatively theoretical. For example, The Original Way written by Han Yu, Original Slander and Original Punishment written by Pi Rixiu, and Original Jun and Original Minister written by Huang Zongxi are all influential.

5. Fable

Fable is a literary form, but good fables should be philosophical, except that fables tell philosophy not by logical reasoning, but by telling stories or personifying animals and plants to achieve the purpose of reasoning. There are a large number of fables among the pre-Qin philosophers, such as Three Commandments by Zhuangzi, Han Feizi and Liu Zongyuan, all of which are famous fables.

6. letter

Letters can be classified as practical articles according to their scope of application, a few as lyrical articles according to their expressions, and most as argumentative articles. For example, Bao Ren An Shu by Sima Qian, Answering Li Yi by Han Yu and Answering Sima Jian by Wang Anshi can all be regarded as essays.

7. Gift orders

This is a style produced in the Tang Dynasty. According to the scope of application, it can be classified as practical writing; According to the expression, it can be classified as prose. Such as Han Yu's Preface to Send Meng Dongye, Liu Zongyuan's Preface to Send Xue Cunyi, and Song Lian's Preface to Send Ma Sheng Dongyang.

8. Commemoration

The memorial is a letter written by courtiers to the emperor, which can be divided into application papers according to the scope of application and argumentative papers according to the expression. From the language form, some are parallel prose and some are prose.

The memorial can also be regarded as a countermeasure of (1) writing (2) thinning (3) table (4) sealing (5) writing (6). Among them, the "seal" is a confidential document, which should be presented directly to the emperor and sealed to prevent leakage, such as the seal of Emperor Gaozong written by Hu Quan in the Southern Song Dynasty. "Miscellaneous words" is a style produced in the Song Dynasty, which is mainly used to discuss political gains and losses and put forward some suggestions. "Countermeasures" should be regarded as a subsidiary category of pleadings. In ancient exams, writing the questions on simple strategies and letting the candidates answer them is called strategic regression. The article that candidates answer questions is called countermeasures. For example, Dong Zhongshu's "A Wise Sage's Policy" in Han Dynasty and Su Shi's "A Policy of Teaching and Keeping" in Song Dynasty.

9. imperial edict

It was the official document given by the emperor to the courtiers, commonly known as "order" in the Warring States period and "system" in the Qin Dynasty. Han Dynasty can be divided into four categories: book planning, book making, imperial edict and admonition.

The scope of application of imperial edicts belongs to practical writing, the form of language expression belongs to argumentative writing, and there are also four or six parallel essays.

10, activity

An election campaign is a proclamation, the content of which is often to publicize one's own strengths and expose the shortcomings of others. Its language forms include prose and parallel prose. From the scope of application, it belongs to practical writing, and from the form of expression, it belongs to argumentative writing.

The above ten kinds are the main forms of ancient prose.

(3) Miscellaneous notes

There are mainly two kinds of miscellaneous notes in ancient times: one is the notes on landscape and personnel, and the other is notes. Among them, notes are mainly notes, which are characterized by short length, the old people do not exceed 1800 words, and the short words are very few. Its contents are varied, including historical anecdotes, anecdotes, literary essays, people's comments, scientific sketches, strange stories from a strange studio, reading notes and so on. Judging from the contents of the whole note, there are three main categories: 1, fairy tales; 2. Anecdotes, customs and people's feelings; 3. Exegesis of famous things and textual research of materials.

(4) Practical writing

In addition to discussing the application scope of letters, prefaces, memorials, imperial edicts and speeches in the text, there are the following types of practical texts:

Tombstone, tombstone, tombstone; 2. Epitaph; 3. Monument; 4. Sacrificial words and ceremonies; 5, Ming Zhen, like. These things are meaningless in modern times, but they are commonly used practical writing in ancient times.

parallel prose (prose written in the parallel style)

Parallel prose is also called parallel prose. It is a style gradually formed under the influence of Ci and Fu in Han Dynasty. This style began to take shape in the Wei and Jin Dynasties and became authentic in the Southern and Northern Dynasties. In the Tang Dynasty, it was generally called "Shi Wen", which was used to compare with ancient Chinese prose. Since Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan advocated the ancient prose movement, this style has declined. Because this style usually uses four or six sentences, it has been called "Si Liu" or "Liu Siwen" since the late Tang Dynasty. It was not until the Qing Dynasty that it began to be called "parallel prose" or "parallel prose". Parallel prose has the following characteristics in language form:

Phonetics pays attention to flatness and parallelism.

Pay attention to compound sentence and CET-4 and CET-6.

Vocabulary pays attention to allusions and algae decoration.

Ancient style compilation

1, "Ji" is an ancient style. It is mainly to record things and express the author's feelings or opinions through notes, things, scenery and characters, that is, to express feelings on the spot and to express their feelings through objects.

classify

(1) Inscription: an ancient style carved on a stone tablet to tell the life story of a character.

② Travel Notes: It is a prose genre describing travel experiences.

Miscellaneous notes: It is a genre of ancient Chinese prose, which is based on things, without much discussion, and writes out what you have seen and heard.

(4) Notes: It is a style that records the life stories of ancient people. Description, description, emotion

2. "Ming" is a style carved on a monument or a utensil in ancient times, which is used to call for merit or to express gratitude. This style is concise in content, especially the warning inscriptions carved on utensils, which are short and ingenious, simple and profound in meaning, lively in form, easy to recite and remember, and have great enlightenment for us to observe life, think about life and express life, and are worth reading and pondering repeatedly.

An ancient style name. Used to describe political achievements or warn and exhort, the words are concise and rhythmic, and they are powerful to read; The system is very short, the shortest is less than a cross, which is quite similar to the motto.

3. "Shuo" is an ancient discussion genre, which is used to state the author's views on some social problems; The style of writing is very flexible, and it can be described and discussed, all to illustrate a truth; Pay attention to literary talent, which is roughly the same as the current essays.

4. "Biao" is a special style in ancient China. In ancient times, courtiers wrote letters to the monarch with various names. During the Warring States Period, they were collectively referred to as "books", such as Le Yi's Letter to Yan Hui Wang and Li Si's exhortation to expel guests. "Book" is a general term for letters and opinions. In the Han dynasty, this writing method was divided into four subcategories: chapter, performance, speech and discussion. Liu Xie said in Wen Xin Diao Zhang Long Biao: "Zhang Xie thanked you, played it according to the disintegration, expressed his feelings, and refused to disagree." It can be seen that the main function of the watch is to express the loyalty and hope of the courtiers to the monarch. Although the specific content is different, it is inseparable from the use of lyric techniques. Therefore, "moving with emotion" can also be said to be a basic feature of this style. In addition, this style also has its own special format, such as saying "I said something" at the beginning and saying "I was scared, nodded hastily and died for sin" at the end.

5. "Book" refers to ordinary letters. "Book" is often the same as "Shuo" in content, discriminating things and explaining meanings. Both of them often express their views and opinions in the narrative, which is very flexible.

6. The preface of "Preface and Postscript" is also called "Preface" or "Introduction", which is an article explaining the intention of writing or publishing books, the arrangement style and the author's situation. It can also include comments on writers' works and research on related issues. "Preface" is usually in front of a book or article, and what is listed at the back of the book is called "postscript" or "postscript". This kind of article belongs to expository or argumentative according to the different contents and expressions, and it is expository to explain the writing purpose, style and content. Comments on the author's works or explanations are argumentative. For example, Introduction to the South, Introduction to Lingguan, etc.

7. "Preface" is a style. In ancient times, poems and songs were used to bid farewell, which was called the preface of giving and answering. For example, "Preface to Send Ma Sheng to Dongyang". This kind of writing is mostly praise and encouragement.

8. Articles describing personal life stories. Generally speaking, it is mostly about the life stories of deceased people who are more influential and outstanding in history. Take narrative, description and other methods to show the life style of characters. This style has always been used in history books.

9. "Qu": it is a form of verse in harmony singing, and it is a long and short sentence with music. It evolved from characters and rose in the Jin and Yuan Dynasties. Its style is similar to that of writing, but it is more free than writing. You can add lines to the number of words and use spoken English more. Songs include Sanqu and Zaju.

10, "ci" is also called another poetic style, long and short sentences, and writing words is also called filling words by sound. Ci originated in the Tang Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty, which is the evolution and development of poetry. Compared with poetry, ci is more lyrical, with less narrative content and less philosophical enlightenment. Its metrical restrictions are stricter than poetry. Words have epigrams, and when epigrams are fixed, each word has a fixed number of words, a fixed number of sentences and a fixed rhyme. A epigraph has a kind of "three determinations" of epigraph, which is not arbitrary at all. If you want to fill in words or use words to solve problems, you must be familiar with the laws of various epigrams, otherwise it is impossible. Although words cannot be classified according to content, they can be classified according to the number of words: all words below 58 are trivial and not segmented. Fifty-nine to ninety words are alto, which can be called up and down strokes or up and down films in sections. The word above 9 1 is a long tune, which can be divided into three folds and four folds ... In addition to strict requirements on the form of words, the content of each epigraph is generally fixed, and what feelings are expressed is also exquisite, so we should pay attention to it.

Report to the authorities

Team supplement 2011-03-05 23:12

"Subsets of Classics and History" are four categories of ancient books in China. Some large-scale ancient books series often include four books and are named after them, such as Four Ku Quanshu, Four Series and Four Essentials. It can be seen that the four categories are of great significance to ancient books.

China culture has a long history, and the classics produced in past dynasties are hard to count. According to incomplete statistics, there are still more than 80 thousand species that have survived to this day. The classification and arrangement of ancient books also began very early. The first large-scale collation of ancient books began in the Western Han Dynasty in 26 BC, presided over by Liu Xiang and Liu Xin, including retrieval, collation, classification and cataloging, and finally compiled the earliest catalogue of the National Library of China-Qilue. Seven Laws divides the ancient books collected at that time into six categories: six arts, philosophers, art of war, mathematics, folk arts and poetry, and adds an introduction to compilation, with the overall title of Seven Laws. The book has been lost for a long time, but its basic content has been preserved in the records of Bangu's Han Shu Yi Wen Zhi. Therefore, the records of Hanshu Yiwenzhi became the earliest classified catalogue of ancient books.

After the Han Dynasty, various ancient books compiled by the government and the people emerged continuously, and the classification methods were improved. In the Western Jin Dynasty, Xunxu's "Jinzhong Classic Book" was changed from six to four, namely, Part A recorded classic books (equivalent to six arts), Part B recorded volumes (including philosophers, military books, mathematics and folk arts), Part C recorded history books, and Part D recorded poetry and fu, which laid the foundation for four categories. According to the actual situation of ancient books at that time, the Bibliography of Jin Yuan Emperor compiled by Li Chong in the Eastern Jin Dynasty changed the history books into part B and the volumes into part C. Thus, four parts of classics, history, volumes and collections were formed. The final establishment of the four-part system is embodied in the Annals of Sui Shu Classics, which was actually compiled by Kevin·Z, a famous minister in the early Tang Dynasty, and officially marked the names of the four parts of the subset of classics and history, and further subdivided into 40 categories. Since then, the four-part classification has been adopted by most historical records and literature catalogues.

In addition to the above four-point method and six-point method, ancient books of all ages also have seven points, nine points or even twelve points, but they are not dominant. This shows that after the test of time, the quartering method can solve the complex classification problem of ancient books well, so it has been widely recognized. Of course, the various categories under the four parts have changed throughout the ages. The Catalogue of Si Ku Quan Shu compiled in Qing Dynasty is divided into four parts and 44 categories, which has great authority.

The four-part classification of Classics, History, Zi and Ji is the product of China traditional culture, which is suitable for traditional cultural classics. Today, it is still a key for us to be familiar with ancient books and then understand traditional culture. Since the May 4th Movement, China has used the western book classification for reference and classified books according to the modern subject system. At present, all kinds of libraries in China generally adopt China Library Classification revised in 1990s (referred to as Chinese Library Classification). However, because many ancient books are difficult to be included in the classification system of Chinese Library Classification, the collection and retrieval of ancient books still adopt the traditional four-part classification.

Edit the specific classification of this paragraph.

Confucian Thirteen Classics and related works are collected by the Ministry of Classics, including the Book of Changes, Books, Poems, Rites, Spring and Autumn Period, Filial Piety, Five Classics, Four Books, Music, Primary School, etc. 10, among which Rites are divided into six categories: Zhou Rites, Rites, Rites, Three Rites, General Rites and Miscellaneous Rites.

There are 15 categories of historical books collected by the History Department, including official history, chronology, miscellaneous history, other history, imperial edicts, biographies, historical notes, records, seasons, geography, official positions, political books, catalogues and historical reviews, among which imperial edicts are divided into imperial edicts and imperial edicts. Geographical points 10 genus, namely, Gongshu, Tongzhi, Dujun, rivers, frontier defense, mountains and rivers, historical sites, miscellaneous notes, travel notes and external notes; Officials are divided into two genera, namely, official system and official admonition; Political books are divided into six genera, namely, general system, etiquette system, national planning, military and political affairs, regulations and examinations; The catalogue is divided into two categories: classic and epigraphy.

The Ministry has a collection of hundreds of works and books, in the category of 14, including Confucianism, military strategists, legalists, farmers, doctors, astronomical algorithms, astrology, art, music records, miscellaneous books, novelists, Buddhists and Taoists. Among them, astronomical algorithms belong to two genera, and astrology belongs to two categories. Art is divided into four categories: calligraphy and painting, piano score, seal cutting and acrobatics. Music scores are divided into three genera: utensils, recipes, plants, animals, insects and fish. Miscellaneous categories are divided into six genera: miscellaneous studies, miscellaneous tests, miscellaneous stories, miscellaneous articles, miscellaneous compilation and miscellaneous compilation. Novelists are divided into three genera: chores, anecdotes and trivial stories.

Poetry collection includes poetry collections and special collections, including Chu Ci, Bieci, anthology, poetry criticism, lyrics and songs. Among them, the lyrics and songs also belong to five genera, namely, word segmentation set, word selection, thorn, word spectrum and rhyme, and North and South songs. In addition to Zhang Hui's novels and dramas, the above categories basically include all kinds of books popular in society. As far as the authors are concerned, they include women, monks, Taoist priests, eunuchs, soldiers, emperors and foreigners.