On the characteristics of commerce in ancient Chinese dynasties

(1) Commerce emerged in the pre-Qin period

Chinese people learned to do business at an early age, and the people of the Shang Dynasty were good at doing business. After King Wu of Zhou destroyed the Shang Dynasty, the survivors of the Shang Dynasty, in order to maintain their livelihood, ran hither and thither to buy and sell, and as the days went by, they formed a fixed occupation. The Zhou people called them "merchants" and their profession "business". This name has continued to this day. The currency used by the Shang people was shellfish, including sea shells, bone shells, stone shells, jade shells and copper shells. The appearance of copper shells indicates that the Shang Dynasty already had money cast in metal. To the Western Zhou Dynasty, business became an indispensable social and economic sectors. At that time, under the system of "industry and commerce eat officials", commerce was monopolized by the state. In commercial exchange, the main currency was still shell, but copper was also used as a means of exchange. Copper itself is an important commodity, but also take on the function of money, and later developed into the casting of copper coins. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the situation of government control of commerce was broken, and many commodity markets and big merchants appeared everywhere. Famous merchants in the Spring and Autumn period were Ching Gao of Zheng, Zigong and Fan Li, disciples of Confucius; famous merchants in the Warring States period were Bai Gui and Lu Buwei of Wei. During the Warring States period, countries minted and circulated more types of copper coins with different shapes, some imitating agricultural tools, some imitating various tools, and some imitating the shape of shells. The large number and variety of currencies reflected the fact that commerce was more developed than in the past. The development of commodity exchange contributed to the prosperity of cities.

(2) The initial development of commerce in the Qin and Han Dynasties

After the unification of China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang, in order to change the status quo of the Warring States period, in which there were many kinds of currencies and different degrees (lengths) and measures (volumes), it was decided to unify the currencies, and to take the round square-hole coins that had been circulating in the State of Qin as the standard currency for the whole country, and this is what is commonly known as the "Qin half a tael. This was commonly known as the "Qin half-tael". He also unified weights and measures, and built the Chi Road, all of which were conducive to the development of commerce and the unification of the country. In particular, the unification of currency had a far-reaching impact on later generations. Most of the subsequent feudal dynasties held the right to mint coins, and the shape of the money remained similar to the "Qin half-tael" pattern of round square holes. During the Two Han Dynasty, with the formation and consolidation of unification and the development of agriculture, animal husbandry and handicrafts, especially the policy of "switching on and off the beams and relaxing the ban on mountains and swamps" implemented by the government of the Two Han Dynasty, there was an initial development of commerce. At that time, the capital city of Chang'an and Luoyang, as well as Handan, Linzi, Wan (Nanyang), Chengdu and other large cities have developed into a famous commercial center. Each city has a "city" dedicated to trade, Chang'an city east and west of the city has a city, and later developed into nine cities, the government at that time on the city's commercial activities to take a strict policy of restriction. The city was strictly separated from residential areas and surrounded by walls. There were stores selling goods in the city, and the government had a full-time official, the city magistrate or the mayor, to manage the city, opening and closing the city on time, and no more business activities were allowed after the closing of the city. Prices in the city are also managed by the officials.

Unlike in the past, the two Han Dynasty opened two Silk Roads, the land and sea, and trade between China and foreign countries gradually developed. After Zhang Qian passed through the Western Regions, the land Silk Road was opened, and the route started from Chang'an, passed through the Hexi Corridor, out of the Yumen Pass or Yangguan Pass, and then passed through today's Xinjiang into Central Asia and West Asia. After Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty, also opened up with the South China Sea countries and the Indian Peninsula and other places to interact with the water transportation line, engaged in regular trade transactions, which is the Maritime Silk Road. The opening of the two Silk Roads favored the development of trade between China and foreign countries.

(3) the further development of commerce in the Sui and Tang dynasties

Sui and Tang dynasties are the prosperous period of China's feudal society. Due to the development of the agricultural economy, the progress of handicrafts, especially in the Sui Dynasty, the excavation of the Grand Canal through the north and south, contributed to the expansion of the scope of commodity circulation. The Tang Dynasty also saw the emergence of the cabinet and flying money. Cabinet shop specializing in currency deposits and loans, is China's earliest prototype of the bank, than the European Mediterranean coast of financial institutions to appear six or seven hundred years earlier. Flying money is similar to the bill of exchange in later times. The emergence of the bank and the flying money was the result of the development of the commodity economy, and their emergence promoted the convenience and development of commerce.

The commercially developed cities in the Sui and Tang dynasties, in addition to Chang'an and Luoyang in the Yellow River basin, Yangzhou and Yizhou in the Yangtze River basin also became prosperous commercial cities. The city of Chang'an in the Tang Dynasty had workshops and cities; there were two cities, the East City and the West City. The city was separated from the workshops by a wall, and the market was opened and closed regularly during the day. East City and West City, each occupying the land of the two squares, each with 220 lines. There were more than 1,000 houses in the East Market, with a mountain of goods and a large number of merchants. The Tang government allowed foreign merchants to trade freely within its borders, and Hu merchants were found throughout the metropolis. West City, there are Western, as well as Persia, Da Food merchants, "Hu style", "Hu customs" popular. The population of Chang'an City was not less than one million, and the demand for commodities from such a large population caused the commercial prosperity of Chang'an City. Rural markets also developed further. Especially in the vicinity of the main land and water transportation routes, the market is increasing, and some of them have developed into important cities and towns.

Sui-Tang period of foreign trade continued to develop. Tang Dynasty before the land silk road unimpeded, the busy scene of endless travelers. After the Anshi Rebellion, the focus of foreign commercial traffic, from the northwest land route to the southeast sea. Guangzhou is the largest foreign trade port in the south, is the gathering place of foreign merchant ships. The Tang government had a city ambassador here, specializing in foreign trade.

(4) the two Song period of commercial prosperity

The two Song period of unprecedented commercial prosperity, first of all, after the establishment of the Northern Song Dynasty, eliminating the late Tang Dynasty, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms of the division of the situation, the social and economic development can be normalized, the high degree of development of agriculture and handicrafts for the prosperity of commerce provides a solid material foundation. Secondly, the government gradually relaxed the restrictions on commodity trading. From the late Tang Dynasty onwards, the system of strict separation of marketplaces was gradually broken, and in the Song Dynasty, stores could be opened everywhere, and the time of buying and selling was also changed from the restriction of the market in the middle of the day, and could be operated in the morning and in the evening. Thirdly, although metal money was still used in the market in the Song Dynasty, in the Northern Song Dynasty, rich merchants in Yizhou, Sichuan Province, began to issue paper money, which was the earliest paper money in the world. Later, the government set up the Jiaozi business in Yizhou to print and issue Jiaozi. During the Southern Song Dynasty, paper money was used in a wide range of areas, and the amount of paper money issued increased greatly. It is suggested that teachers guide students to look at the textbook illustration of paper money in the Northern Song Dynasty and summarize the impact of the emergence of paper money on the development of commerce. The issuance and use of paper money facilitated commercial activities and promoted commercial prosperity. Fourth, land and water transportation was convenient during the two Song dynasties, especially the smooth opening of the Maritime Silk Road, which was conducive to the development of foreign trade.

The prosperity of business in the Song Dynasty was first manifested in the prosperity of urban business. Prosperous metropolis of the Northern Song Dynasty, the capital of Kaifeng and the Southern Song Dynasty, the capital of Lin'an (Hangzhou). Kaifeng has been increasingly prosperous since the Five Dynasties, and by the time of the Northern Song Dynasty had developed into the world's mega-city of more than a million people, and business was also unprecedentedly prosperous. The city had both bustling commercial districts and professional trading places. The Northern Song Dynasty painter Zhang Zeduan's "Qingming Shanghe Tu" reflects the commercial prosperity of Kaifeng City. Lin'an, the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty, had a population of one million in its heyday, replacing Kaifeng as the largest city in the world. Inside the city, there were many stores, flourishing trade, morning market, night market day and night, restaurants, teahouses, tiles and so on.

The variety of commodities increased, and various types of bazaars appeared. Many agricultural and sideline products and handicrafts began to turn to the market, becoming an important commodity. For example, the remaining grain of the farmers in the Suhu area, bamboo and wooden ware made by the southern gimlet makers were turned into commodities. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the variety of commodities increased, and merchants paid attention to the packaging of commodities, and also paid attention to advertising for their own goods. It shows that the level of businessmen in the Northern Song Dynasty has been greatly improved. The city also appeared in the regular and irregular, professional and seasonal markets of different types. The income from commercial tax became more and more an important source of finance for the government.

The two Song period, border trade prosperity. The Northern Song Dynasty confronted Liao and Xixia, and the Southern Song Dynasty confronted Jin. The two Song in the border areas adjacent to the Liao, Xixia, Jin set up debatable, bilateral trade, mutual exchange of goods, profits.

The two Song period, overseas trade developed. Song Dynasty, the Maritime Silk Road unimpeded, the government also attaches special importance to overseas trade. In this way, overseas trade developed. In the Northern Song Dynasty, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Arabian Peninsula and even Africa, there are dozens of countries to trade with China. In the Southern Song Dynasty, overseas trade was even more developed, and foreign trade tax revenue became one of the important sources of wealth for the state treasury.

(4) the continued prosperity of commerce in the Yuan Dynasty

The Yuan Dynasty realized the unprecedented unification of the country, laying the foundation for the further development of the economy; re-dredging of the Grand Canal, dredged Grand Canal from Hangzhou to the metropolis; opened up the sea, shipping from the mouth of the Yangtze River in the port of Liujia, through the Yellow Sea, Bohai Sea to reach the ZhiGu (Tianjin); the Yuan government also set up post stations all over the world, the land Silk Road across Europe and Asia also re-emerged as a boom. The land silk road across Europe and Asia is also re-exploited, these are prompted by the Yuan dynasty business continues to prosper.

Metropolis of the Yuan Dynasty is a political and cultural center, but also a prosperous international commercial metropolis. From Eastern Europe, Central Asia, from the coast of Africa, from Japan, Korea, from all over the South China Sea, there are caravans to the metropolis. Inside the city, there are more than thirty bazaars with no less than 100,000 residents. All kinds of domestic and foreign commodities flowed incessantly to converge here. "The importation of a hundred things is as numerous as the unending flow of a hundred rivers." It is said that every day only the silk brought into the city reached a thousand carts. Hangzhou was the largest commercial and handicraft center in the south, and "the trade was so huge that no one could say how much it was." Quanzhou was an important port for foreign trade during the Yuan Dynasty, with more than a hundred ships anchored here, and foreign travelers hailed it as the world's largest port. The Yuan government set up the Hublot Department here to tightly control foreign trade.

(5) During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the small peasant economy became more and more closely connected with the market, and the commercialization of agricultural products was developed; the town economy flourished and developed as never before, and many big cities and rural markets were very prosperous. Among them, Beijing and Nanjing were national trading cities, gathering specialties from all directions. Throughout the country, many regional groups of merchants, called merchant gangs, emerged, of which the largest and strongest were the Hui merchants and the Jin merchants.

Hui merchants

Hui merchants are the merchants of Huizhou. Huizhou has a tradition of doing business, and Huizhou people are very united, focus on helping each other, and also advocate thrift. After hundreds of years of operation, Huizhou merchants have accumulated amazing wealth. It is suggested that the teacher use a passage from Gu Yanwu quoted in the Reading and Thinking after the lesson to summarize the reasons for the wealth of the Huizhou merchants. Huizhou merchants almost "no goods do not live", a wide range of business, but "the first fish salt", the operation of salt is particularly important. The rise of the Huizhou merchants is from the beginning of the operation of salt. Ming dynasty salt production by the government monopoly. In order to solve the problem of insufficient food and pay for the border guards, the Ming government allowed merchants to transport food to the designated border places to pay, and then gave them the right to sell salt. As Huizhou was far away from the border defense sites, Huizhou merchants did not have an advantage in the salt business at first. However, after the middle of Ming Dynasty, the Ming government changed grain payment to silver payment, and Huizhou merchants invested in the salt industry and became rich. Hui businessmen operating in the salt industry to accumulate commercial capital, and then expand the scope of business, operating tea, timber, food and other industries, the scope of activities throughout the country, folk proverbs have "no Hui not the town" said. In overseas countries also left their footprints, there are "everywhere Huizhou merchants" said. Hui merchants with strong commercial capital, operating bulk commodity trading and long-distance transportation; and intervene in the field of production, dominate the production activities of certain craftsmen; also operated pawnbroking and other financial industries, to obtain high profits. Hui merchants from the early Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty flourished for hundreds of years, the emergence of a million or even more than ten million assets of the rich merchants. Teachers are advised to ask students to look at the textbook illustration "Huizhou merchant's house", and then point out to the students: this is a few hundred years ago, Huizhou merchants built the house, and is still intact today.

The merchants of Jin

The merchants of Jin are the merchants of Shanxi. They are the same name as the Hui merchants of the Ming and Qing dynasties in China and a large merchant gang. Their rise and development through the same with the Hui merchants. The rise of the Jin merchants is also operating in the salt industry. Jin merchants in the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, the use of the northern border of the convenience, for the government to transport military food, to obtain the right to sell salt, the operation of the salt industry to get rich, become rich salt merchants. After accumulating huge commercial capital, they gradually expanded their business scope, selling silk, iron, tea, cotton, timber and so on. By the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty, Jin merchants began to set up financial institutions, operating deposits, lending, exchange, but also for the government agent money and grain. After a long period of operation and accumulation, the financial strength of the Jin merchants continued to grow, to the Qing Dynasty, the assets of a million or so million can not be counted, the richest Jin merchants, the assets of the Kang's up to tens of millions of taels. The scope of activities of the Jin merchants is extremely wide, many people even out of the country, to Japan, Southeast Asia, Russia and other places to do business.