What about ancient China in the eyes of foreigners?

The Great Song Dynasty in the Eyes of Foreign Scholars

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German economic historian Gund. Frank in his book "Silver Capital" said: "China in the Song Dynasty was particularly outstanding in terms of important technological, productive, and commercial developments and in terms of general economic development. McNeill considers China to have been the most important 'center' in the world at the time. ...... Since the Song dynasty in the 11th and 12th centuries, China's economy has far outstripped the rest of the world in terms of industrialization, commercialization, monetization, and urbanization. " In his book A History of Social Life in the Southern Song Dynasty, the renowned French sinologist Xie and Nai said, "China in the thirteenth century made remarkable progress in modernization, such as its unique monetary economy, paper money, and negotiable securities, its highly developed tea and salt enterprises. ...... In the fields of social life, art, entertainment, institutions, and craftsmanship, China was undoubtedly the most advanced country of its time, and it had every reason to regard the rest of the world as mere barbarian states." Sinologist Ipexia, a professor of East Asian studies and history at the University of Illinois, says in her book, "The Cambridge Illustrated History of China," "China in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries was the premier state in the world at the time."

American scholar Roz K. Murphy, who served as president of the Association for Asian Studies, called the Song dynasty the most important period of China's history. Murphy called the Song dynasty China's "golden age" and said of it in A History of Asia, "In many ways, the Song dynasty was one of the most exciting eras in China, dominating a period of unprecedented development, innovation, and cultural exuberance. In many ways, the Song dynasty was a golden age of political clarity, prosperity, and innovation. The Song was indeed a time of confidence and creativity."

American scholar L.S. Stavrianos, who also considers the Song Dynasty a "golden age," said in A General History of the Globe, "The Song period is noteworthy for the fact that a veritable commercial revolution took place, one of great significance for the entire Eurasian continent. The commercial revolution was rooted in a remarkable increase in the productivity of the Chinese economy. Steady technological development increased the output of traditional industries. Similarly, the introduction of early-maturing varieties of rice boosted agriculture by allowing crops to be grown in two seasons where previously they could only be grown in one. In addition, new water conservancy projects constructed during the Song dynasty greatly expanded the area of irrigated paddy fields. It is estimated that rice production doubled between the 11th and 12th centuries. Increased productivity made possible a corresponding increase in population, which in turn further boosted production. The rapid growth of economic activity also increased the volume of trade. For the first time in China, there were large cities centered primarily on commerce, rather than administration."

Japanese scholar Kiyoshi Set forth Yabuuchi in "China. Science . Civilization," said, "The Northern Song Dynasty was an epoch-making era in Chinese history. In this era, Confucianism saw the rise of the Neo-Confucianism, which came to be known as the Song or Zhu Zi school; culture saw the revival of ancient literature along with the flourishing of oral literature; printing was developed on an unprecedented scale, and books were issued not only on Confucian classics, but also on history, poetry, and literature, and so on. Worthy of special mention here is the publication and distribution of scientific books. It can be said that since ancient times there was no such emphasis on medicine as that of the Northern Song Emperor. ...... In short, there were many amazing achievements in this culturally advanced historical trend. It has even been argued that the Northern Song era can be compared to the Renaissance and even the modern era in Europe."

Renowned British economist Angus. Maddison, in The Long-Term Future of China's Economy, argues, "China's per capita output remained at this level from the Han to the Tang. The Song Dynasty was a peak of development, with per capita output increasing by one-third, and from the fourteenth to the eleventh centuries, it most likely fell again. Assuming that Europe and China had similar levels of economic development in the first century A.D., by the time of the Song dynasty there is good reason to believe that Europe had lagged considerably behind China's level....... The Song dynasty is generally regarded as a period of deeper and deeper development, whereas the five hundred years following the Song were characterized mainly by horizontal development." The 2004 Nobel Prize-winning economist Edward . Prescott said in his keynote speech, "Overcoming Obstacles to the Wealth of Nations - Economic Policy and Economic Cycles," at the China-U.S. New Market Economy (Beijing) Forum, "China was very rich during the Song Dynasty, twice as rich as the world average."

Dr. Joseph Lee, a member of the British Academy and honorary director of the Joseph Lee Institute at the University of Cambridge, England, said in A History of Science and Technology in China, "China's scientific and technological development by the Sung Dynasty was at its peak, and in many ways actually surpassed the level of Britain or Europe before the Industrial Revolution of the mid-18th century."

Renyu Huang, a historian with a Ph.D. in the Department of History at the University of Michigan, says in The Great History of China, "With the rise of the Song Dynasty in A.D. 960, China seemed to enter the modern era, and a kind of material culture thus unfolded. The circulation of money was more widespread than before. The invention of gunpowder, the use of flamethrowers, the navigational compass, the astronomical clock, the blast furnace, the water-powered textile machine, and the use of watertight bulkheads on ships all appeared in the Song Dynasty."

Jonathan Spence, a professor of modern Chinese history at Yale University, said in a January 2000 article. Spence, in an article published in Newsweek on January 1, 2000, had this to say about the Song dynasty: "The last Chinese century was the 11th century. At that time, China was the largest and most successful nation in the world. Its leadership stemmed from a range of factors, from technological inventions to the rise of industrial enterprises and well-managed agriculture, from a widespread tradition of education and administrative experimentation to tolerance of religion and various philosophical ideas. ...... China in the last 1000 years was a world superpower and the most powerful country in the world. The capital of the Song Dynasty at that time was in Bianliang, Tokyo, now Kaifeng, Henan Province, with a population of millions, the most advanced, prosperous and sprawling city in the world."

American scholar Eugene. Anderson says in Chinese Food: "During the Song dynasty, Chinese agriculture and food took final shape. Food production was more rationalized and scientific. By the end of the Song dynasty, northern China, no longer ruled by the Han Chinese, had matured agriculturally. Thereafter there was little change until the mid-20th century. South China expanded farming and added new crops in subsequent dynasties, but the pattern there was still established in the Song dynasty and was not accompanied by many fundamental changes in technology."

Renowned American scholar Arnold. Toynbee, in Humanity and Mother Earth, said, "The later barbarians of the 10th, 11th, and 12th centuries were also strongly attracted to Chinese civilization. In addition to adopting Chinese civilization for themselves, they spread it in the territories they ruled, which were never included in the Chinese Empire. The contraction of the Chinese Empire was thus compensated by the expansion of Chinese civilization - not only in the countries that sprang up around the Chinese Empire, but also in Korea and Japan."

In The Pursuit of Power, American historian McNeill says: "The hypothesis of this book is that China's turn to market regulation around the turn of the first millennium upended a crucial equilibrium in world history. I believe that the Chinese example set in motion a millennial quest by humanity to discover what would be somewhat fruitful at this point in coordinating large-scale behavior in terms of prices and private or small group (partnership or corporate) perceptions of self-interest."

The Northern Song Dynasty was hailed by late 20th-century Americans as the "leader" of humanity's second millennium. According to Japanese historian Hunan Naito, "The Tang Dynasty was the end of the Chinese Middle Ages, and the Song Dynasty was the beginning of China's modern era." French scholar Edina called the Song Dynasty "the dawn of modern times". French scholar Edina Baraz, a renowned sinologist and a pioneer in international Song history studies, clearly states that "the Song dynasty was the end of the Chinese Middle Ages and the beginning of the Chinese modern era. Balazs clearly pointed out: "The characteristics of Chinese feudal society had already matured by the Song Dynasty, while the new factors of modern China had already appeared prominently by the Song Dynasty. The study of Song history, therefore, will help to solve a number of major problems concerning the beginnings of modern China." ......

The Chinese have not studied the Song Dynasty nearly enough, so most Chinese nowadays are under-recognized and lack understanding of the Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty was the peak of Chinese civilization, and Chinese people nowadays don't know the greatness of their ancestors or why China is lagging behind. Nowadays, China is not confident to the point of being a mess ...... Nowadays, some Chinese cultural people talk about Greece and Rome this is actually the sorrow of China! Nowadays, Chinese people doubt and deny China's traditional civilization, and warmly worship the Western civilization, which used to lag behind us a lot. 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries, the West was far behind China in every aspect, whether it was politics, science and technology, culture, economy, or military. Why did China fall behind? It is not the stagnation, corruption and degeneration of traditional Chinese civilization itself. In fact, the answer to this is very simple: it is the frantic destruction of barbaric and backward peoples that interrupted the process of our advancement. As the famous French sinologist Xie and Nai said in the introduction of "Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion", "The Mongol invasion formed a heavy blow to the great Chinese empire, which at that time was the richest and most advanced country in the world. Whereas on the eve of the Mongol invasion Chinese civilization was in many ways at the peak of its glory, as a result of this invasion it has endured utter devastation throughout its history."

The so-called achievements and splendor of the Yuan Dynasty were the legacy of the Song Dynasty, all plundered not created by themselves. The Yuan dynasty began to ban the sea and also night markets, resulting in the loss of vitality in people's livelihood and a major regression in Chinese commerce. The Mongols turned good land into pastureland, making horse farms everywhere in the country, even in Lianghuai. After hundreds of years of construction of water conservancy in the Song Dynasty, good land was turned into pasture, resulting in a major regression in Chinese agriculture. Yuan Dynasty policies and measures are obvious regression and decline. It is in the primitive society stage of Mongolia, Manchu Qing Dynasty, repeatedly to the capital society is advancing China from the new drag back to the semi-feudal half-slave social stage. Without the interference and destruction of primitive savage peoples, Chinese civilization would have flourished and China would still be far ahead of the world.

Tang Yen, a civilian thinker of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, summarized the socio-economic situation of China in this way:

(According to Japanese scholars, the middle of the Kangxi period was the highest per capita GDP in the Kangxi and Qianlong periods, and from then on in the demographic pressures, China's per capita GDP began to fall all the way down)

The Qing dynasty is now more than fifty years old. The four seas, increasingly poor: empty agriculture, empty labor, empty city, empty. Valley cheap and hard to eat, cloth and silk cheap and hard to clothe, boat to the market and the goods folded cost, the officials to go to the official and no home, is four empty also. Money, so through the availability. The middle-class family, tasted ten months do not see a gold, do not see the coins, there is no way to pass. Therefore, the farmers are frozen and discouraged, department stores are dead, such as murder in the year of plenty, good business without chips. Walking in the city, the line of restaurants KunYao, crowns and costumes Huashy, into their homes, the morning is out of smoke, the cold is curled up body does not Shen. The people of Wuzhong, more sell men and women in distant places, the beauty of the male for the excellent, the evil for the slave. The beauty of the female for the concubine, the evil for the maidservant, all over the sea carry on.

Then look at the memories of the West

Western missionaries at the end of the Ming Dynasty were still praising China's extremely rich, material production capacity far better than Europe, claiming that the "Ming people" are "beautifully dressed, elegant". The British envoy Macartney, in his diary of a mission during the Qianlong period, said: "Since the conquest of the North or Manchurian Tartars, at least for the last 150 years, there has been no improvement, no advance, or rather a retrogression; while we are advancing every day in the field of the arts and sciences, they are in fact turning into semi-barbarians". [[10]

Xu Tiexin and Wu Chengming, The Sprouting of Capitalism in China (People's Publishing House, 1985), Chapter 4, Section 1]. In Macartney's eyes the Kangqian period looked like this..." There was staggering poverty everywhere," "people in rags and even naked," "armies in rags like beggars"..." The garbage we throw away is snatched up and eaten."

The Ming Dynasty through the eyes of a late Ming missionary

Europeans at the end of the 16th century came to know China mainly through the first part of the History of the Great Chinese Empire. In Mendoza's writing:

(1) China was an ancient civilization with a vast territory, and the Chinese called themselves the "Tame" people. The country is divided into 15 provinces (the Ming Dynasty changed the province of the Central Committee for the Chengxuan Buzhengji, divided into its territory for the south, north two Zhili,

13 Chengxuan Buzhengji, often referred to as the 15 provinces - the author), "each province is larger than the European countries we know."

(2) There was an intact network of roads in China that connected towns and cities. The roads were smooth and wide, and the "official road" could accommodate 15 people on horseback. Roadside stores, both sides of the tree-lined, as in Roman times, like the avenue. Some cities were connected by waterways, just like Venice. Beijing is the largest city in the world.

(3) The Chinese are rich in architectural talent. The materials used in construction were unparalleled, and a kind of square (i.e., brick) made of "white earth" was so hard that only a hoe could break it. The houses were like manor houses. China's most majestic structure is the Great Wall, 500 leagues long (each league is about

5,572 meters), built as a defense against the Tatars.

(4) China is rich in produce. The variety of vegetables is far greater than in Spain. Oranges alone are of three varieties, namely, sweet, sour, and moderately sweet and sour. Sugar is of good texture, very white and cheap. Silk is bright in color and of a quality exceeding that of the products of Granada, Spain. "The prices of velvet, silk, and cloth are so low that the mention of this will astonish those who are acquainted with the prices of textiles in Spain and Italy." Silk clothing is commonly worn in China. Chinese farmland was well managed. There was not a single piece of deserted land. A patchwork of cultivated fields resembled a garden. Minerals were also abundant. "This is the richest and yet very cheapest country in the world."

(5) The handicrafts produced in China were extremely fine; in 1582, the King of Spain was honored with Chinese bedsheets, which were woven in such a way that Philip II marveled at them. Many Spanish skilled craftsmen have come to view and learn from. Porcelain is very cheap, Europeans originally thought porcelain is made of crushed shells. The most exquisite porcelain is tribute, thin as glass.

(6) China's commerce was well developed, buying and selling flourished. Each street tended to carry only one trade. The first store you see tells you what goods are sold on that street. The craftsmanship of Chinese artisans was passed down from generation to generation. There was a wide variety of Chinese currency, with gold and silver used by weight, and no certain style of gold or silver coin.

(7) The Chinese army had infantry as well as cavalry. China also had warships, 600 of which could be mustered in four days. Chinese soldiers outnumbered Europe and were on even footing in terms of equipment.

(8) The Chinese emperor had full powers to rule the country. Administrative officials at all levels exercised their powers effectively. They were created through imperial examinations. China had complete laws. Officials and nobles went out on bridges, while women never socialized outside. Chinese banquets were extravagant. The Chinese had their own musical instruments.

(9) China has a long history. It has a unique educational system. Books of all kinds are abundant. Chinese people are rich in civilization and education.

(10) The Chinese have high achievements in scientific technology. Europeans have always been proud of the use of printing, "yet the Chinese were already printing books by the press 500 years before Joan

Gutenbergo, the German, invented the printing press." Mendoza believes that printing was introduced to Germany via the Russian Grand Duchy of Moscow. But he does not deny the other possibility that Chinese books traveled to Europe by sea (the Red Sea) and thus inspired Gutenberg. In particular, Mendoza suggests that of all the Chinese inventions, the one that most shocked the Portuguese and other Westerners was the fact that the Chinese also had artillery and had used it before the Europeans. However, the Europeans had very different perceptions of the effectiveness of Chinese artillery. Rada thought Chinese artillery was old and crudely made. Another captain, Artieda, wrote to the King of Spain: "...... The Chinese use the same weapons as we do. Their cannons are very fine, and their barrels are more elaborately cast and stronger than ours." Since Mendoza had not been to China, he did not make his own judgment on the above ambiguity, but he also quoted the latter in the following passage: "The Chinese walls are strong, surrounded on the outside by deep trenches (which can be filled with water from the river in case of emergency), and the gates of the city are armed with cannons, which are considered by the Chinese as the best of fortifications. The walls are guarded day and night by officers with soldiers. No foreigner can approach the city without the permission of the highest authorities of the city." Mendoza's excerpt from this large discourse on the fortification of Chinese cities is by no means purposeless. It actually shows that he considered Chinese artillery to be very powerful. In addition, Mendoza describes Chinese shipbuilding, papermaking, and other crafts, pointing out the ways in which they were superior to those in Europe.

Cruz also praised China's scientific and technological achievements in China, and Mendoza apparently quoted many of Cruz's ideas, while giving a more comprehensive introduction to China's level of scientific and technological development, which was also rated more highly. Like the level of Chinese shipbuilding, Cruise emphasized the huge scale of the Chinese fleet, even comparing it to the Chinese emperor's ability to build a bridge between China and Malacca with his ships, and explained the types of Chinese ships and the use of keeled waterwheels. In addition to the above, Mendoza further elaborates on the Chinese shipbuilding technique of caulking, which not only repels water but also protects against insects due to the rational additives used in caulking, making Chinese ships last twice as long as those in Europe. When discussing Chinese printing, Cruz only mentions that China has been using printing for 900 years. Mendoza, on the other hand, as mentioned earlier, clarifies the ins and outs of the use of printing in China and the route of its westward spread. Mendoza also conveys more information to the West in terms of the use of firearms in China. The level of science and technology is an important indicator of the comprehensive national power of a country and nation. Mendoza's objective evaluation of China's scientific and technological level undoubtedly played an important role in Westerners' understanding and knowledge of China.

"Their houses are easy to accommodate because they are well designed, neat and comfortable"

"They grow many vegetables for the people's year-round consumption" "They have everywhere, even in small villages and towns, an plenty of meat, the most commonly eaten throughout the year is pork, and beef is sold boneless; they have very little venison, and do not much care for it"

"Most of the best commodities in China are shipped from this place (quoted: here, Canton) to all parts of the world, as it is the most open and free place of trade in China. To say nothing of the various goods carried off by the natives and foreigners of the six neighboring countries, the Portuguese shipments to India, Japan, and Manila alone amount annually to about 5,300 boxes of all kinds of silks, each containing 100 pairs of silks, velvety floral satins and satins, light materials such as semi-floral satins, colored single-layered threaded segments, as well as

250 pieces of gold, and 2,200 ingots weighing twelve ounces each, in addition to the shipments of Porcelain plates, gilded vessels, sugar, Chinese wood, rhubarb, musk, ...... even a long list could not be exhaustively named"

"(Zhejiang) in terms of affluence it exceeds many other provinces, and can be called the best source of the trend of Chinese goods. Its specialty is silk, whether raw or finished, whether cocoon or raw material, are shipped everywhere. In short, all the silk exported from China comes from this province."

"The last of the nine southern provinces is Nanjing, ...... one of China's best provinces and the cream of the country. Its western region is the richest and produces cotton yarn. ...... In the city of Changzhou (Xanuchi) and the vast area attached to it alone, there are 200,000 looms. ...... Owing to the small size of the looms, many are often placed in one house, and nearly all the women are engaged in this trade."

"The city of Nanking ...... I consider it to be the the largest and best city in the country, with excellent buildings, wide streets, elegant people, and a rich and excellent variety of goods. It has enviable places of amusement, and the territory is so populous that ...... everywhere one can meet with crowds of people, and the streets are difficult to pass through. Moreover, innumerable palaces, temples, towers, and bridges give the city a magnificent appearance."

"The Chinese are naturally good at business, and not only do they trade from one province to another and gain great profit, but they even do business in the same city as well. What is available in the stores is almost always sold on the streets. The ...... rich merchants are of good credit and punctual (as the experience of the Portuguese has proved for many years)."

"The Chinese are quick to extol any virtue of their neighbors, and brave to confess their inferiority, whereas the people of other countries, who do not like anything else but what is of their own country, do do not like anything else. When the Chinese see a product from Europe, even if it is not exquisite, they still let out an exclamation of admiration. ...... This humility is truly enviable, especially in a people whose talents surpass those of others, and it is a disgrace to those characters who have no eyes and deliberately disparage what they see.