History of ceramic culture

Ceramics is a general term for pottery and porcelain. Ceramics is a kind of handicraft and a kind of folk culture. So, how much do you know about the history of ceramic culture? The following is the history of ceramic art and culture I compiled for you, hoping to help you.

Development history of China ceramic art

China's ceramic art is world-famous, in which the appearance and development of ceramic art preceded that of porcelain art. From about the Tang Dynasty, porcelain production began to gradually replace pottery production, and then pottery art began to decline. However, in any case, the development of ceramic art represents one of the great achievements of ancient handicrafts in China. Appreciating China ancient pottery helps us to better understand the splendid ancient culture of China.

Painted pottery art in Neolithic age

Archaeological findings prove that as early as 67,000 years ago in the Neolithic Age, our ancestors had a relatively mature ceramic art ... Most Neolithic pottery was made of argillaceous and sandy matrix, and some pottery was made of kaolin. The invention of pottery-making technology, especially painted pottery technology, marks a leap in China's ancient production and artistic development.

1, painted pottery

Painted pottery is a kind of pottery with black and red patterns. Its color is dipped in red (ochre) and black (manganese) pigments with a brush, and painted on the ceramic blank after polishing and before firing. After firing, the color pattern is fixed on the surface of the pottery and is not easy to fall off. Black is the main color of painting, and red is also used. In some areas, such as western Henan, a layer of white pottery will be painted as a base before painting to make the painted patterns more vivid. The firing temperature of Yangshao painted pottery is between b900 ~ 1000℃, and the painting tool may be a brush. The content of painting decoration is mainly various geometric patterns, such as ∽ shape, cross shape, mesh shape, water wave shape, vortex shape, hook leaf shape and so on; There are also lifelike animals (such as fish, frogs, turtles and deer) and plants (such as flowers, fruits, leaves and branches). ), and numbers. These patterns are mostly decorated in the mouth and abdomen of fine clay red pottery bowls, bowls, pots and cans.

2. Painted pottery art

A batch of fish-faced pottery was unearthed from Yangshao cultural site in Anbanpo, Xi 'an. The characters above have round faces, open or closed eyes, fish-shaped ornaments or semicircular hair bundles on their heads, and fish lines in different directions on their ears and cheeks, which are extremely vivid and cordial. The typical artistic pottery of Yangshao culture also includes the painted pottery bottle with a head-shaped mouth unearthed in Dadiwan, Qin 'an, Gansu Province and the lipstick pottery bottle with a head-shaped mouth unearthed in Luonan, Shaanxi Province. The dancing pottery pots unearthed from Majiayao Cultural Site in Sunjiazhai, Datong City, Qinghai Province, show three groups of silhouette-style dancing figures, dancing arm in arm, vivid, dynamic and rhythmic.

Many experts say that as long as we pay attention to the ceramics we use now, whether they are modeling or decoration, they still flash many characteristics like Yangshao cultural relics. This also shows that Yangshao painted pottery is actually the source of China ceramics, or at least one of them. Together with the pottery of the late Longshan culture (black pottery) and Liangzhu culture, it laid a solid foundation for the development of China ceramics.

Zhou Taoyi

1, summer pottery and steamed bread kiln

After China entered the Bronze Age in ancient times, the bronzes with exquisite shapes and magnificent spirit were the special products of the aristocratic ruling class, but the folk practical utensils were still mainly pottery and bamboo. The development of pottery in Xia Dynasty is rather vague, and the artistic pottery products in Xia Dynasty are rarely identified. From the existing archaeological findings, it can be seen that in the Xia Dynasty, argillaceous gray pottery and mixed sand pottery were more common, followed by black pottery and brown pottery, and red pottery was extremely rare. But there are also a few white pottery. The firing technology of pottery in Xia Dynasty has made some progress than before, and a steamed bread kiln which can produce higher temperature has appeared. This kind of kiln wall is arc-shaped, gradually converging upward, and the top is shaped like steamed bread, so it is called steamed bread kiln. Steamed bread kiln can improve the firing temperature of pottery, so it can improve the quality of pottery.

2. Shang and Zhou pottery: white pottery, glazed pottery and hard pottery with printed patterns.

During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the most popular pottery among the people was round or round molded gray pottery and red pottery. Decorative patterns of pottery in Shang and Zhou Dynasties were mostly printed with carved clappers in turn when the pottery blank was still wet. Decorative patterns include S pattern, herringbone pattern, water ripple pattern, rope pattern, palindrome pattern and pattern (double pattern). A large number of Neolithic hard ceramics have been unearthed in Lamma Island, Hong Kong, and their patterns (double F) are unique. On 1930, Fr Daniel Fen found a pattern similar to two grass "English letters" on pottery unearthed in southern China, which he named (double F pattern). Double grain is a typical decorative pattern of hard pottery in the bronze age in southern China, which is also called "real grain" because it is the same as the real grain on bronze wares in Shang and Zhou Dynasties.

In the late Shang and Zhou dynasties, a kind of pottery with dark patterns appeared. Under suitable light, the pattern structure can be distinguished without revealing concave and convex traces. The manufacturing principle is that when the ceramic blank is not dry, tools such as clappers are used to press and grind the surface of the ware to increase the density of the pottery, and the surface will appear luminous black-gray after firing. This is the treasure of folk pottery at that time.

The highest achievement of Shang and Zhou pottery was to produce exquisite white pottery and glazed pottery with crystal glaze. White pottery is a white and delicate pottery made of kaolin and fired at high temperature, which is found in the early ruins of Longshan culture and Erlitou culture. White pottery made in Shang Dynasty? , cups, beans, reeds, pots, mugs, etc. Because of its fine mud washing, neat and rich modeling, white and flawless, and prosperous engraving, it is precious. In the late Shang Dynasty, the firing of white pottery reached its peak. White pottery in this period has been unearthed in ruins or tombs in Henan, Hebei, Shanxi and Shandong, with the Yin Ruins in Anyang being the most unearthed. At this time, the white pottery is not only fine in material selection, but also quite neat and exquisite in production. The surface of pottery is decorated with exquisite patterns such as gluttonous patterns, poems, Yun Leiwen, zigzag patterns, etc., and its modeling and ornamentation are all similar to those of bronze ritual vessels at that time. White pottery in the late Shang Dynasty was a treasure of ceramics at that time, and it was also a treasure of China ceramics. After Shang Dynasty, white pottery declined rapidly due to the appearance of porcelain.

The firing technology of pottery in Shang dynasty has been greatly improved, and steamed bread kiln is the main kiln type. A new type of pottery kiln, which is more advanced than steamed bread kiln, has appeared in Jiangnan area? Longyao. In recent years, archaeologists have discovered the Dragon Kiln of Shang Dynasty in Shangyu, Zhejiang and Wucheng, Jiangxi. This kind of kiln is usually built on the hillside according to the mountain situation. The kiln body is laid in a long oblique shape, and it looks like a dragon from bottom to top, hence the name Long Kiln. Compared with horizontal kiln, vertical kiln and steamed bread kiln, dragon kiln has many advantages: the kiln itself, which leans upward by the mountain, naturally draws power, has strong firepower, strong ventilation and rapid temperature rise; The length of the kiln can be increased according to the production needs and technical conditions, thus increasing the firing capacity of the kiln, making it easier to maintain the kiln atmosphere in the kiln, and making the pottery of the Shang Dynasty develop greatly. Glazed pottery is a kind of pottery with some natural minerals and plants (such as caustic soda, lime, plant ash, etc.). ) coated on the ceramic blank and fired into ceramic glaze. This kind of glazed pottery is gray, hard and dense, with a transparent blue glaze on its surface, and its chemical composition is similar to that of coarse porcelain, so it is also called primitive porcelain.

Among the pottery in Xia, Shang, Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn Period, there is also a striking printed hard pottery worth mentioning. India hard pottery is also pottery, but the tire quality is finer and harder than ordinary argillaceous pottery and mixed sand pottery, and the firing temperature is also higher than ordinary pottery. The surface of pottery is printed with geometric patterns, so it is called printed hard pottery. Its characteristics are: the chemical composition of the tire is similar to that of the original porcelain, but it contains more iron, and the surface and interior of the container are mostly purple, reddish brown, taupe or yellowish brown; There are many geometric patterns on the watch; Some are shiny; The tire is hard, and Shi Sheng Jin can make a sound by tapping lightly. This kind of pottery was unearthed in the ruins of the Xia Dynasty. The Western Zhou Dynasty witnessed the development and prosperity of hard pottery with patterns, including jars and altars, some of which were as high as 9 cm. The relief hard pottery in the Spring and Autumn Period inherited the development of the previous generation. Printed hard pottery is a kind of pottery with some characteristics of original porcelain, and it is a transition from pottery to porcelain.

Warring States pottery

Gray pottery is still the most common pottery in the Warring States period, and it has a wide range of uses, including daily utensils, pottery, building pottery and a small number of pottery production tools.

During the Warring States period, the daily-use pottery was mainly muddy gray pottery, and the cookers such as kettles were sand-filled gray pottery. Generally, the firing temperature is high and the fetal quality is hard. Common vessel shapes are: pots and retort for cooking utensils, pots, cans, bowls and urns for containers, bowls, beans and cups for tableware, etc. Due to the different cultural traditions of different countries, there are great differences in the shape of pottery in different countries, which has obvious local characteristics. It is worth noting that during the Warring States period, a large number of large-scale pottery was fired, such as an urn with a height of 82 cm, a caliber of 465,438+0 cm and a belly diameter of 90 cm, and a pot with a height of 55 cm and a caliber of 88 cm, indicating that the molding and firing technology of pottery was already very high at this time, which laid the foundation for firing the tall Qin Terracotta Warriors and Horses.

During the Warring States period, due to the change of funeral system, nobles gradually replaced bronze ritual vessels with pottery ritual vessels, and replaced human sacrifices with wooden figurines or pottery figurines. Therefore, in the Warring States period, the pottery imitation green bronze ritual vessels developed rapidly and more pottery figurines appeared. Pottery mainly includes ding, beans, pots, reeds and so on. Moreover, it is well-made, and Zhu's polishing, dark flowers, carved lines and other decorations are widely used, which improves the pottery-making technology to a certain extent and promotes the development of the pottery-making industry. In particular, the appearance of the Warring States pottery figurines created an important variety of China pottery, with far-reaching influence. The Warring States terracotta figures are characterized by small size (5- 15 cm high), low temperature, rough production, and some still have obvious scratches, which are very primitive.

India hard pottery is still an important pottery variety in the Warring States period, which is widely distributed, especially in wuyue area in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. At this time, the firing technology of printed hard pottery was improved, and the matrix was basically sintered, and the matrix was hard, mostly purple-brown or brick red. There are not many shapes of vessels, mainly jars, cans (with big round mouth and deep mouth), cans, bowls, jars and other containers. The decorative patterns are mainly rice grains, checkered patterns, palindromes, spiral patterns and S-shaped patterns of velvet towels, while the previously used curved ruler patterns are rare in Yun Leiwen. Due to the different cultural traditions in different places, the shapes and patterns of utensils have their own characteristics, and some of them are quite different.

Although there are not many artistic pottery products in the Warring States period, they are of great significance. First of all, the Warring States period art pottery is the last stage of pre-Qin art pottery, and it is also the transition from pre-Qin products to Qin and Han products. Secondly, due to the prevalence of thick burial and the rise of pottery figurines, there is a new trend in the production of artistic pottery. This sacrifice is called. Funerary wares? , that is, funerary wares. "Book of Rites. Tan Gong said:? It's called funerary wares, also called artifacts. People who say artifacts are different from living utensils. ? At present, pottery figurines have been unearthed in Luoyang, Huixian, Changzhi, Shandong, Linzi and Pingdu, Shandong. These terracotta warriors and horses directly opened the development of Qin terracotta warriors and horses.

Qin and Han pottery

1, Terracotta Warriors and Horses

In the Qin dynasty, pottery vessels were very rare, generally only jars belonging to primitive porcelain, while gray pottery included jars, silkworm-shaped pots, urns, duck egg shells and some building pottery. In contrast, the production of artistic pottery in Qin Dynasty was prosperous and unique. From 1974 to 1976, three large burial pits of terracotta warriors and horses were found in xiyang village, Lintong, outside the east wall of Qin Shihuang Mausoleum. These terracotta warriors and horses are as big as real horses, with more than 7000 pieces. This great discovery is called by the world? The eighth wonder of the world? . Terracotta warriors include terracotta warriors, warriors, chariots and horses. The production of terracotta warriors and horses of Qin Shihuang pays attention to the delicate expression of each part of the terracotta warriors and horses in order to show the complete style of the terracotta warriors and horses as much as possible. Therefore, in terms of artistic expression, the terracotta warriors and horses of Qin Shihuang are basically based on realism. This is the inheritance and sublimation of the pre-Qin sculpture art style and the pre-Qin ceramic art style, and it is also an accurate grasp of the true story and physical characteristics. The terracotta warriors and horses of Qin Shihuang are mainly made of plastic. This kind of plastic is not ordinary kneading, but a molding method, which makes the figures of Terracotta Warriors and Horses have the characteristics of roundness and harmonious proportion. In addition to sculpture, there is also a kind of sculpture expression on the detailed outline of figurines. This kind of performance does not indulge in trivial descriptions, but focuses on highlighting the personality and overall momentum of the figurines. Such as the folds of battle clothes, the texture that flutters slowly with the wind, closely matches the heroic and invincible temperament of the figurines.

Qin Terracotta Warriors and Horses are the highest level of gray pottery works in ancient China, and the most brilliant masterpiece of the vigorous, simple and lively washing style of pottery figurines in northern China. As a kind of pottery, Qin Terracotta Warriors and Horses' production methods and techniques have concentrated the achievements of China's pottery-making technology for thousands of years since Shang and Zhou Dynasties. By combining the mold and plastic, they are divided into various parts (head, hands, feet, trunk, etc.). ) make, fit and glue them into the first tire (called shaping), and then cover the surface with fine mud to form frogs. In terms of firing, it can be seen from the characteristics of Qin Terracotta Warriors and Horses that the composition of tire mud was strictly unified, the degree of dryness and wetness was very suitable, the temperature was just right, and the color of pottery was unified, which really reached the highest level of pottery making at that time, indicating that a kiln with considerable volume had been built at that time, and the reducing atmosphere of firing in the kiln could be accurately controlled.

2. Han dynasty pottery: lead glazed pottery

Han dynasty is an important period for the development of ceramic art, and the number and types of artistic pottery in Han dynasty are more than in the past. Western Han pottery inherited the artistic style of Qin Dynasty, which was profound and majestic. During the Western Han Dynasty, more distinctive independent figurines appeared, including painted command figurines unearthed from Yangjiawan Han Tomb in Xianyang, Shaanxi Province. This little statue is like wearing a scarf, hanging a red ribbon, wearing a red and white shirt, wearing a black armor, wearing a waist and kicking high boots. This figurine highlights the commander's breath with its concise, refined techniques and bright colors, which is very touching. However, the most distinctive independent figurines in the Han Dynasty may be the rap figurines in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The rap figurines unearthed in Chengdu, Sichuan province, have shaped a story teller with a happy face, a naked upper body, a bulging stomach and a bulging chest. The left arm holds the drum, and the right arm holds the stick and points forward; Curl your right foot and stretch your left foot forward. As Yi Fu in the Han Dynasty said in Dance Fu:? On his poetry, it is better to listen to its sound than to observe its shape. ? The pottery figurines in Sichuan in the Eastern Han Dynasty are the most typical, with vivid shapes, simple and refined techniques, rich flavor of life and times, reflecting all aspects of social life at that time, such as politics, economy, culture, military affairs and ethnic relations. Most of the pottery figurines of Han Dynasty in Sichuan are muddy red pottery with low temperature and loose tires.

The highest achievement of pottery in Han dynasty can be said to be the production of lead glazed pottery. Glazed pottery in China was discovered as early as the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, but it was rarely produced. After Emperor Xuandi proclaimed himself emperor in the Western Han Dynasty, it appeared more in Guanzhong and Henan, and became a very important pottery variety in the Han Dynasty, which was popularized throughout the country in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The matrix of this kind of glazed pottery is pottery, and the glaze is made of copper-iron oxide as colorant and lead oxide as flux. Lead glazed pottery has a low firing temperature, mostly 700℃, so it is called low-temperature lead glazed pottery. Lead glazed pottery is characterized by low melting temperature, low viscosity at high temperature and high fluidity, which can cover the surface of utensils evenly. The cooled glaze is clear and transparent, flat and smooth, with strong glassiness, high index, radiant and high decorative effect. Because of low firing temperature, weak matrix and high lead content in glaze, it was mostly used as decorative utensils and funerary wares, and almost all of them were used as funerary wares in Han Dynasty, including: ding, box, pot, bin, furnace, well, water tank, mill, pavilion, pool and so on. The successful firing of a large number of lead pottery in the Han Dynasty is not only a great achievement and feature of pottery in the Han Dynasty, but also a precedent for large-scale production of low-temperature glazed pottery in China, which has had a far-reaching impact on pottery production after the Han Dynasty. Tri-color in Tang Dynasty and glaze color in Song and Ming Dynasties all developed from it.

3. Appearance of porcelain

An important phenomenon in the development of ceramic art in Qin and Han Dynasties is the appearance of porcelain. Although primitive porcelain appeared a long time ago, the earliest and real porcelain in China only appeared in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. Many celadon kiln sites in the late Eastern Han Dynasty were found in Shaoxing, Shangyu and Jinhua, Zhejiang. According to the measurement, the firing temperature of the ceramic tiles found in these kiln sites has reached about 13 10℃, and the flexural strength is 7 10 kg/cm2. Porcelain matrix has the characteristics of high hardness, translucency, corrosion resistance, easy cleaning and beautiful appearance. Therefore, with the development of porcelain in the Three Kingdoms and the Jin Dynasty, it quickly replaced pottery, bronzes and lacquerware with absolute advantages and became the most important daily necessities in people's daily life.

Ceramic art in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties

From this period, China ceramic art began to decline, and the development of porcelain art gradually grew, but the so-called? South, blue and white? Phenomenon. ? Nan Qing? It means that the celadon fired in the porcelain kiln with Zhejiang as the center in the south is as clear as lake water; ? North white? It means that porcelain kilns in Henan and Hebei burn more white and flawless white porcelain. However, this is only the general situation. Because the production of white porcelain was invented by northern craftsmen on the basis of learning from the firing of southern celadon, they not only fired white porcelain, but also fired celadon and black porcelain. Pottery production in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties was also obviously divided into two departments. Pottery produced in the south is mainly used for daily life and human sacrifice, with simple style and exquisite and lively form. Pottery produced in the north is mainly used in daily life. The remarkable feature of these products is the production of novel utensils, such as pan-mouth cans, double-ear cans, four-series cans and fruit boxes. The style is generally simple and simple, but it is also influenced by the southern production technology. Southern pottery is generally gray pottery and red pottery, and glazing technology is not very developed. Because northern pottery is dominated by lead glazed pottery, it pays more attention to glaze color technology, such as adding cyan color to yellow glaze bottom, cyan color to white glaze bottom, or using multiple colors together. These glazing methods influenced the glaze color characteristics of tri-color in Tang Dynasty. The pottery barn in the south is very distinctive; The artistic pottery in the north is represented by figurines, among which the typical ones are the northern grey pottery maid, the northern painted shaman wizard and the northern grey pottery old woman.

Sui and Tang ceramic art

1, Tang Sancai

The Sui and Tang Dynasties witnessed the high development of China porcelain. In contrast, the development of ceramic art began to decline in addition to the magnificent colors in the prosperous Tang Dynasty.

The artistic pottery in the Tang Dynasty is a portrayal of the social spirit in the prosperous Tang Dynasty, which is reflected in the maturity and boldness of the tri-color sculpture art in the Tang Dynasty. Tri-colored artistic pottery of the Tang Dynasty has been unearthed in Luoyang, Gongxian County, Shaanxi Province, Ganling, Shaanxi Province, xi 'an and other places, and its products are generally buried in tombs. Figures, horses and camels are the main figures in tri-color paintings in Tang Dynasty, among which figures are the majority. Characters are divided into male characters and female characters. Male figurines include businessmen, Hu figurines, slaves, civil servants and soldiers. The appearance of businessmen, conference semifinals, slaves and other images is a portrayal of the mutual trade and friendly exchanges between society and the outside world at that time, especially with all ethnic groups in the western regions. The female figurines in the Tang Dynasty are mainly ladies figurines. The female figurines unearthed from the Tang tomb in Wangjiafen, Shaanxi Province, have a high bun, a mirror in her left hand and a finger in her right hand. This product pays special attention to the collocation of sauce, white, green and other colors, which highlights the elegance and charm of female figurines. The female figurines unearthed from Yutinghui Tomb in Xi 'an County have their hands hidden in sleeves, their chests arched, their faces plump, their bodies plump, their demeanor dignified and their colors colorful. Although the female figurines in the tri-colored Tang Dynasty are less than the male figurines in image types, they can leave a deep impression on people because of their distinctive image characteristics. The images of horse figurines and camel figurines in the tri-colored Tang Dynasty are very vivid. In addition, there are statues of heavenly kings, tomb animals and some small animals, models and decorations in the three-color art pottery of the Tang Dynasty.

2. Glaze and molding of Tang tricolor.

Tri-color glaze developed from monochromatic glaze through color-changing glaze, and it took hundreds of years from the invention of lead glazed pottery in Han Dynasty to the appearance of tri-color glaze in Tang Dynasty. From the Han Dynasty to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, monochrome lead glazed pottery was used as a sacrificial vessel. Even from Wu Zetian, the most popular three-color pottery, to the Kaiyuan period of Xuanzong in Tang Dynasty, there were quite a number of monochrome lead glazed pottery in Tang tombs. Monochrome glaze later developed into color-changing glaze, that is, various colors and glazes were applied to one device, or yellow, green and brown were used together. This process is based on one color glaze and then adds color to the basic glaze, which is different from the glazing method of multi-color glazes in Tang Sancai, but it undoubtedly provides a technical premise for the birth of Tang Sancai. Tricolor glaze is actually a kind of multicolor glaze, in which yellow, green, white, red, blue and black glazes are applied at the same time. After blending, flowing and blooming, it presents an ever-changing magnificent picture.

The composition of plastic in tri-color artistic pottery in Tang Dynasty is manifested in kneading and molding. The former is more common in character products, while the latter is more common in horse and camel products. Generally, molded products are kneaded by hand, with no particular emphasis on the coordination of characters, and more emphasis on depicting personality and dynamic characteristics. Molded products are generally formed by printing, so they can generally show consistent proportional characteristics. The composition of carving is also an indispensable part, especially after the molding, the outline and detailed structure of the image are still vague, and it is generally necessary to carve carefully to make these outlines and structures clearly appear. For example, the eyes and meridians of various parts of the horse's body can be relatively prominent through carving. Although the molded product does not require clear outline and vivid details, it is also very important to carve it carefully in order to portray it vividly, such as excited eyes, cocked beard and slightly parted lips, which all show the traces of the sculptor.

Development of Ceramic Art since Tang Dynasty

Compared with the booming porcelain art, the development of ceramic art after the Tang Dynasty is basically lacking, and only glazed pottery, fake flowers and purple sand pottery in the Ming Dynasty are worth mentioning.

Coloured glaze and Fahua are representative varieties of ancient Chinese pottery, which reached * * in the Ming Dynasty. Jiulong Wall in East Street, Datong City, Shanxi Province is the most famous colored glass product in Ming Dynasty. The whole wall is made of glass bricks of yellow, green, ochre, purple and blue, which is quite spectacular. The products of artificial flowers in Ming Dynasty are mainly a number of Buddha statues and deities, such as Maitreya Buddha, Guanyin statue and Zhenwu Emperor.

Another great achievement of folk ceramics industry in Ming Dynasty is the prosperity of purple sand pottery. Zisha pottery is a kind of hard pottery made of purple clay. The exterior of this ceramic product is not glazed, but its appearance is simple and elegant, and the surface becomes smoother and smoother with the use, which is full of national characteristics. Zisha pottery tea is loved by people because it has the characteristics of no odor when making tea, no rancidity in midsummer, good cold and heat resistance, and good mutation performance. Zisha pottery is the most famous in Yixing, Jiangsu. However, purple sand pottery is cherished by literati and is not popular among the people.