Politics, economy, thought and culture of past dynasties

Politics Since the Xia Dynasty, China has had an early national political system. The main contents of China's early ancient political system are: hereditary system of the throne, enfeoffment system and patriarchal clan system (the core of patriarchal clan system is the eldest son inheritance system).

The hereditary system of the throne and the patriarchal clan system decided the smooth handover of the central government, while the enfeoffment system was the local political system in this period, and the local decentralization was relatively large.

economy

(1) Agriculture: Bronze farm tools appeared in Shang and Zhou Dynasties, but because bronze is precious, it is rarely used in agricultural production, and the use of wooden farm tools is still very common; During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, iron farm tools and Niu Geng were widely used in production.

(2) Handicraft industry: The handicraft industry represented by bronze casting in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties was monopolized by the government, which was called "government-run handicraft industry".

As early as the primitive society, China people had mastered the technology of copper smelting; During the Shang dynasty, people were able to burn primitive porcelain and weave all kinds of silk fabrics with looms. In the Western Zhou Dynasty, ironware appeared; During the Spring and Autumn Period, private handicrafts appeared.

(3) Commerce: In Shang Dynasty, commerce developed greatly, and shellfish became a kind of physical currency; During the Western Zhou Dynasty, markets appeared in big cities. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the technology of metal coinage began to be used. At this time, the government's control over commerce was broken, and commerce developed and prospered.

culture

(1) Literature: The Book of Songs, the first collection of poems in China, appeared at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, which laid the foundation for the realism of Chinese classical literature; During the Warring States Period, Qu Yuan created a new genre of Chu Ci on the basis of southern folk songs. Hundreds of essays in this period are valuable.

(2) Science: In the Western Zhou Dynasty, the astronomical observation method of "measuring shadows with standard tables" was invented; In the Spring and Autumn Period, the formula of 99 multiplication appeared. At this time, the famous doctor "Yihe" laid the foundation of TCM etiology; Sina was made during the Warring States Period, and Huangdi Neijing was published at this time.

(3) Painting: Painted pottery painting dominated in ancient times, and silk painting dominated in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period.

(4) Calligraphy: In Shang Dynasty, Chinese characters had formed a complete system, represented by Oracle Bone Inscriptions; Bronze inscriptions appeared in the late Shang Dynasty and reached their peak in the Western Zhou Dynasty. During the Warring States Period, Da Zhuan appeared.

To be continued.

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Second, Qin and Han dynasties:

In the political Qin dynasty, centralization was established with the emperor system as the core, and the "county system" was implemented locally; In the Western Han Dynasty, in order to strengthen the autocratic monarchy, the "internal dynasty system" was implemented, and the emperor's cronies served as ministers and participated in the military to weaken the relative power.

Locally, the "county-state parallel system" was implemented in the early Western Han Dynasty, that is, the county-state system and the enfeoffment system coexisted; Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty promulgated the Order of Grace, and then formally implemented the local administrative system of "state, county and county".

In the electoral system, the Western Han Dynasty implemented the "procuratorial system".

economy

(1) Agriculture: The farming method of "Niu Geng with iron plough" continued to develop, and the sowing tool-plough was invented in the Western Han Dynasty.

(2) Handicraft industry: In smelting and casting industry, the technology of blast furnace ironmaking and steel frying was invented in Han Dynasty; In the porcelain industry, mature celadon was fired in the Eastern Han Dynasty. In the textile industry, the silk weaving industry in the Western Han Dynasty was developed, in addition to hemp weaving technology.

(3) Commerce: Most of the commerce in Qin and Han Dynasties was concentrated in cities, and most of the traded goods were enjoyed by nobles and bureaucrats. Due to the policy of "emphasizing agriculture and restraining business", business development is difficult.

culture

(1) Literature: Chu Ci prevailed in the Han Dynasty, and writers created a comprehensive style of Han Fu, which was half poetic and half literary.

(2) Science: In the early Western Han Dynasty, paper appeared; In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Cai Lun improved papermaking, using cheap raw materials such as bark to make paper easy to write; In the Eastern Han Dynasty, decimal notation appeared in mathematics. In medicine, Zhang Zhongjing's Treatise on Febrile Diseases laid the theoretical foundation of clinical science of traditional Chinese medicine.

(3) Painting: There are many kinds of paintings in the Qin and Han Dynasties, including murals, silk paintings, woodcuts, woodcuts, stone reliefs and brick reliefs.

(4) Calligraphy: The commonly used word in Qin Dynasty is "Xiao Zhuan"; Later, "Lishu" appeared and became a common font in the early years of the Western Han Dynasty.

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Three. Wei, Jin, southern and northern dynasties

In the politics of this period, the system of three provinces and six departments began to take shape gradually. First, Shangshu Province holds real power, then Zhongshu Province and Menmen Province.

The official selection system in this period is called "Nine Grades System", which refers to the nine grades of talents. "Zhongzheng" is the electoral officer, who is responsible for evaluating the grades of talents.

economy

(1) Agriculture: During this period, the "plowing and harrowing technology" was formed in the dry land in the north.

(2) Handicraft industry: In metallurgy and foundry industry, the steel casting method was invented in the Southern and Northern Dynasties; In the porcelain industry, the Northern Dynasties were able to fire mature white porcelain.

(3) Commerce: During the Jin Dynasty, the economic center of China began to move southward gradually, and some cities in the south gradually became the most prosperous metropolis at that time.

culture

(1) Literature: Tao Yuanming in the Eastern Jin Dynasty initiated the pastoral school; During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Xie Lingyun initiated the School of Landscape Poetry. During this period, mystery novels were very popular, and Gan Bao's Search for the Gods was its representative.

(2) Neo-Confucianism: Zu Chongzhi further refined the value of pi and formulated Da Liming; Jia Sixie became one of the earliest masterpieces in the world agricultural history-Qi Yao Minshu.

(3) Painting: Scholar-bureaucrat painters in Wei and Jin Dynasties summed up many incisive painting theories, which promoted the development of painting art, such as the painting method of "vivid with form" proposed by Gu Kaizhi, a painter in the Eastern Jin Dynasty.

(4) Calligraphy: During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, regular script, running script and cursive script derived from official script were all mature.

Wang Xizhi's Preface to Lanting is called "the best running script in the world".

Since the Wei and Jin Dynasties.

China's calligraphy art has entered a "conscious stage" of development.

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Fourth, Sui and Tang Dynasties

During the political Sui and Tang Dynasties, the system of three provinces and six departments was mature. The governors of Shangshu, Zhongshu and Menxia provinces were all prime ministers, and the emperor of the Tang Dynasty strengthened imperial power through decentralization. At the local level, the Tang Dynasty * * * set up our time, which caused a serious separatist situation in the late Tang Dynasty.

In the system of selecting officials, Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty abolished the system of "Nine Grades" and began to adopt the method of "examination" to select officials. When Yang Di, Emperor Yangdi of Sui Dynasty, established the "Jinshi Branch", the imperial examination system was formally formed.

economy

(1) Agriculture: During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, "Qu Yuan Plow" appeared in Jiangdong area, which can adapt to the farming requirements of various soils and different fields; In the Tang Dynasty, a kind of "pipe truck" was used for irrigation.

(2) Handicraft industry: In terms of porcelain making, the Tang Dynasty formed two porcelain making systems, namely, "southern blue and northern white"; In the silk weaving industry, the silk weaving technology in the Tang Dynasty was "light and refined", which absorbed the Persian weaving method and pattern style.

(3) Commerce: During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the rural fair trade developed, and cabinets and flying money serving commerce came out one after another.

culture

(1) Literature: In the Tang Dynasty, poetry entered the golden age of development; As another form of poetry, "Ci" also appeared in the Tang Dynasty.

(2) Science: In Sui and Tang Dynasties, woodblock printing appeared; At the end of the Tang Dynasty, gunpowder had been used in the military. Represented by Sun Simiao's prescription, medicine has also made brilliant achievements.

(3) Painting: painters in Sui and Tang Dynasties absorbed the styles of foreign art such as India and Persia to create; Wang Wei, a poet in the Tang Dynasty, pioneered the technique of ink-and-wash landscape painting.

(4) Calligraphy: Yan Zhenqing created Yan-style calligraphy, which is solemn and generous and has far-reaching influence. Liu Gongquan founded the "six valleys" calligraphy with tall and straight style; In addition, there are outstanding calligraphers, such as Zhang Xu, a cursive writer in Cao Sheng.

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Verb (abbreviation of verb) in Song and Yuan Dynasties

Politically, the Song Dynasty set up the "Zhongshumen" as the highest administrative organ, and the Chief Executive exercised the functions and powers of prime minister. Later, it was set up to "participate in politics" to divide the administrative power of the prime minister, "Tang envoys" to divide the military power of the prime minister, and "three secretaries" to divide the financial power of the prime minister; The Yuan Dynasty established "Zhongshu Province" as the highest administrative organ of the central government. At the local level, the Yuan Dynasty initiated the "provincial system", which has influenced it to this day.

In the system of selecting officials, the imperial examination system is still used.

economy

(1) Agriculture: After the Song Dynasty, the economic focus of China gradually shifted to Jiangsu and Zhejiang; In the Song Dynasty, there were also high-speed transfer vehicles using hydraulic power as irrigation tools.

(2) Handicraft industry: In terms of porcelain making, five famous kilns appeared in Song Dynasty: Ru kiln, Guan kiln, Ge kiln, Jun kiln and Ding kiln; There are many kinds of silk fabrics in the Song Dynasty, and the brocade absorbs the realistic style of flower-and-bird painting with lively patterns. At this time, the Central Plains began to mine a large number of coal, which was widely used as fuel.

In the Yuan Dynasty, folk handicrafts began to surpass the development of government-run handicrafts.

(3) Commerce: The Song Dynasty broke the boundary between "city" and "square" in the city, and trade activities were no longer directly supervised by official clothes; The foreign trade in Song Dynasty was also very developed. In the Song Dynasty, the "cross" of paper money appeared. Usury prevailed in Yuan Dynasty.

culture

(1) Literature: Ci, which appeared in the Tang Dynasty and reached its peak in the Song Dynasty, is mainly divided into "bold school" and "graceful school"; At this time, a new form of poetry-Sanqu rose among the people. The creation of Sanqu in Yuan Dynasty entered a prosperous stage, and it was called "Yuanqu" together with Yuan Zaju.

In addition, in the Song Dynasty, the literary form of "Hua Ben" was also very popular.

(2) Science: In Song Dynasty, Bi Sheng invented movable type printing with cement; At this time, the compass is also used for navigation.

(3) Painting: During the Song Dynasty, the Palace Painting Academy entered the most active stage, and painting began to rise.

Genre painting was the highlight of the painting circle at that time, represented by Zhang Zeduan's The Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival.

In the Yuan Dynasty, literati painting was the most outstanding achievement, and freehand brushwork was also popular for some time.

(4) Calligraphy: Su Shi, Mi Fei, Cai Xiang and Huang Tingjian, known as "Song Sijia", are all painters and calligraphers; Zhao Mengfu, the representative of calligraphy in Yuan Dynasty, advocated that "calligraphy and painting should be the same as calligraphy".

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Sixth, Ming and Qing dynasties

At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang abolished the prime minister system and set up a "Diange University" as a squire consultant. During Judy's reign, "Cabinet" began to appear; In order to strengthen the imperial power, Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty set up a "southern study room" in his palace. Yong Zhengdi established "Military Department" to strengthen imperial power.

Locally, the Ming and Qing dynasties implemented the provincial system.

economy

(1) Agriculture: At this time, wind turbines appeared as irrigation tools.

(2) Handicraft industry: In the porcelain industry, there are various types of porcelain, such as blue and white porcelain, colored porcelain and enamel color; In the textile industry, the cotton textile industry developed rapidly in the Ming Dynasty. Exquisite satin became the representative of silk fabrics in Qing Dynasty.

The most important point at this time is that in the textile industry in the middle and late Ming Dynasty, capitalist relations of production began to appear (the relationship between employment and being employed), and the seeds of capitalism began to rise.

(3) Commerce: During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, a large number of agricultural and sideline products entered the market and became commodities. The long-distance trafficking trade between regions has developed rapidly, and money has played a great role. As a regional group of businessmen, "business gangs" have also appeared, such as "Shanxi merchants" and "Huizhou merchants".

culture

(1) Literature: Novels in this period entered a stage of vigorous development.

Represented by the "four classic novels".

(2) Science: Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica is called Oriental Pharmacopoeia; Song's Heavenly Creations and Xu Guangqi's Complete Book of Agricultural Administration both became achievements in the scientific field in this period.

(3) Painting: At this time, literati painting, which is mainly based on freehand brushwork, still occupies the mainstream of painting in Ming and Qing Dynasties.

(4) Calligraphy: Calligraphy in Ming Dynasty is represented by Wen Zhiming's running script.

Bad organization, please adopt.

The above is for reference.