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The rise and development of capitalism

1. Establishment and expansion of handicraft workshops: After the opening of the new sea route, Britain became the Atlantic shipping center, the wool spinning industry developed rapidly, and handicraft workshops were established. And extended to coal mining, ironmaking and other fields.

2. The enclosure movement is a capitalist transformation movement aimed at agriculture, which has changed the land ownership and management mode. Developed agriculture, accumulated primitive capital and created a large number of free labor. Greatly promoted the development of British capitalism.

3. Overseas trade, colonial plunder and slave trade are the main contents of British businessmen's overseas activities in the16th century, which are conducive to the accumulation of original capital.

4. Tudor's measures to strengthen autocratic rule are in line with the development of capitalism and objectively provide favorable conditions for the development of capitalism. (1) After the Reformation in the 65438+6th century, the King of England became the supreme head of the Church of England and was no longer subordinate to the Pope. The reform dealt a heavy blow to the Catholic Church and weakened and restricted the old feudal forces. (2) Encouraging industry and commerce and overseas plunder not only enhances national strength, but also protects the primitive accumulation of capital, and promotes the development of capitalist economy and the growth of bourgeois forces. (3) 1588 defeated the Spanish Armada? British history began to establish maritime hegemony. /kloc-colonized India and North America at the beginning of the 0/7th century.

5./kloc-In the first half of the 7th century, the autocratic rule of Stuart dynasty hindered the further development of capitalism and infringed upon the interests of the bourgeoisie. (It became the root cause of the British bourgeois revolution): James I and Charles I practiced autocracy under the idea of "divine right of monarchy", which greatly harmed the interests of the bourgeoisie; Under the religious autocracy, the severe treatment of non-Christians, especially the persecution of Puritans among them, caused political tension. Because the Puritans' opposition to feudal restrictions and their desire to achieve economic prosperity just met the needs of the bourgeoisie, the Puritans' thoughts became the ideological weapon of the bourgeoisie and new noble's anti-feudal struggle. )[ 1]

British bourgeois revolution and the establishment of capitalist system

1640, the bourgeoisie joined forces with the upstarts to lead the broad masses of people. Under the sharp social contradictions, after parliamentary struggle, civil war, the establishment of the Republic, Cromwell's military dictatorship, the restoration of the Stuart dynasty (1660) and the "glorious revolution" in 1688, after half a century of tortuous struggle, such as 1689, the bourgeoisie and new noble used their rights in parliament. From 17 to 18, the cabinet system and the two-party system were gradually established. The establishment and development of the capitalist system provided the necessary preconditions for the industrial revolution.

At that time, especially under the situation that the feudal system in Europe was gradually declining and the development and growth of capitalism had become an irreversible historical trend, the British revolution reflected the requirements of the whole world to a great extent. As an important and influential country in Europe, Britain took the lead in completing this transformation and transition, which provided an example for the bourgeois revolution in Europe in theory and practice. Since then, some countries in Europe and other regions have carried out different forms of revolution under its influence, bringing the world into a new era. Therefore, the British bourgeois revolution marks the arrival of a new historical period.

The establishment of world colonial hegemony

(From the middle of17th century to the end of18th century)

At this stage, colonial expansion was carried out in Asia and North America, and fierce competition was launched with the Netherlands and France. Through three Anglo-Dutch wars (respectively1652-1654; 1665- 1667; 1672- 1674), the Netherlands captured the new Dutch colony in North America (later renamed new york) and further established its maritime hegemony, while the Netherlands lost its position as a European power.

The "Seven Years' War" (1756- 1763) was the final contest between Britain and France for Indian and North American colonies. As a result, France lost large colonies in North America such as Canada and New France, and only kept strongholds such as local governance in India. At this point, Britain finally established the world? Britain colonized hegemonic position in history and dominated Europe.

Capitalism developed rapidly during the British Industrial Revolution.

(1mid-8th century-1mid-9th century)

1. From the 1960s of 18 to the 40s of 19, from the invention and use of new machines in the cotton textile sector to the appearance of machine manufacturing, Britain took the lead in carrying out and completing the industrial revolution, becoming the first industrial country and "world factory" in the world, and its strength reached its peak. The industrial revolution has greatly promoted the rapid development of social productive forces and capitalist industries. At the same time, it has caused great changes in the social structure, and society is increasingly divided into two opposing classes-the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

With the development of capitalist industry, the bourgeoisie has gradually developed. On the one hand, they are dissatisfied with the feudal autocracy under the Vienna system, demanding more participation in the political life of the country and actively launching liberal reforms and revolutionary movements for political rights. For example, in 1832, Britain carried out parliamentary reform, and the bourgeoisie gained more rights through peaceful means. On the other hand, in order to consolidate and strengthen its political and economic status, the bourgeoisie strongly opposes state intervention in economic life and demands further contact with feudal shackles to realize free competition, free operation and free trade. 1776 The publication of The Wealth of Nations marked a major shift in economic policy from traditional protectionism to "free competition".

3. The industrial bourgeoisie is increasingly opposed to the proletariat, with sharp contradictions. The constitutional movement from 65438 to 0836 was the product of the intensification of this contradiction, which marked that the British proletariat began to enter the political arena as an independent force.

4. In order to meet the needs of industrial development and bourgeoisie, we should seize the origin of raw materials and expand the commodity market by establishing colonies and semi-colonies. For example,/kloc-in the middle of the 0/9th century, it completely occupied India and occupied Singapore; Launched two Opium Wars to invade China and occupy Hongkong, making China a semi-colony. In Oceania, there are Australia and New Zealand; In Africa, British troops infiltrated Egypt; In Latin America, we stepped up our economic aggression against new countries.

During this period, in order to prevent France from dominating Europe, Britain organized an anti-French alliance to interfere in the French Revolution. The independence of the United States made Britain lose 13 colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America and New France, which were established in the early17th century and 1930s.

Bourgeois revolution

Modern British history began with the British bourgeois revolution in the middle of17th century. This is the period when the British capitalist system was established and developed.

1603, Queen Elizabeth died childless, and King James VI of Scotland succeeded to the British throne, called James I (reigned from 1603 to 1625), and started the Stuart Dynasty (1603 ~ 1649,/kloc). From the second half of16th century to the first half of17th century, the capitalist economy developed rapidly, and the increasingly powerful bourgeoisie and new noble could not stand the autocratic rule of feudal monarchies. However, James I and Charles I ignored these changes, insisted on the "divine right of monarchy", vigorously strengthened the Anglican Church, persecuted the Puritans who demanded a "pure" church, sold the exclusive right to industry and commerce, and resumed the long-abandoned exorbitant taxes and levies, which intensified the contradictions. 1628, the parliamentary opposition proposed "? British historical rights petition, the king subsequently dissolved the parliament and implemented 1 1 year without parliamentary rule. In order to raise military funds to suppress the Presbyterian uprising in Scotland, Charles I was forced to convene a parliament in April of 1640, and dissolved it three weeks later. History calls this parliament a "short-term parliament". In June of the same year 165438+ 10, Charlie was forced to convene the parliament for the second time. This parliament existed until June of 1653, which was called "long-term parliament" in history and was the leading center of the revolution. Its convening is considered as the beginning of the British bourgeois revolution. 164 1 year 1 1 month, the parliament protested to the king; The following year, in June+10, 5438, the king tried to arrest the leader of the parliamentary opposition and fled the capital. In August, he declared war on Parliament in Nottingham.

At the beginning of the first civil war

The parliamentary army has been losing ground. O Cromwell's cavalry, mainly composed of Puritan farmers and craftsmen, won a great victory in meston on 1644, and was called "Iron Army". At the beginning of 1645, the parliament reorganized the army according to Cromwell's request, established a "new model army", and defeated the royalist army in the battle of Nasby in June 1645. The following year, the king was captured, 1 and the civil war ended in the victory of the parliamentary army. During the civil war, the parliament passed a decree to confiscate the royalist land, auction it to the bourgeoisie, and abolish the feudal obligation of the landlord to the king, but the farmers got nothing. After the war, the contradictions among the old school, the independent school and the equal school within the revolutionary camp intensified. 1At the end of 647, King Charles fled.1February 648, royalist forces took the opportunity to start a civil war again. Under the joint attack of independents and equals, the royalists were defeated again and the second civil war ended. 1648 12, Cromwell purged the Presbyterian Church in Parliament; 1649 65438+1On October 30th, Charles I was beheaded (see color map), and in the same year, a unicameral system was announced. The bourgeoisie and China successively suppressed the egalitarians and gold diggers, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and defeated the Netherlands and Portugal. 1707, Scotland was formally incorporated into Britain, which was also called Great Britain. 1in April 653, Cromwell dissolved the remaining parliament.1in February, a government was established to defend the country and implement military dictatorship.

1February 660, the Stuart dynasty was restored. Although charles ii and James II (in office 1685 ~ 1688) tried to restore the old order, the social and economic changes that took place during the Great Revolution were irreversible. From 65438 to 0679, Parliament was divided into Whigs and Tories around the issue of succession to the throne, which was the origin of modern political parties. 1688 in June, the Catholic king James II had a son in his later years. In order to prevent Catholics from inheriting the throne, Whigs and Tories joined hands to invite William, a Protestant Dutch ruler, to the throne in Britain. In June 5438 +065438+ 10, William led a fleet to land in Britain and overthrew the Restoration Dynasty. 1689 February, William and his wife Mary ascended the throne at the same time. William was called III (reigned from 1689 to 1702). Mary was called II (reigned from 1689 to 1694). The history of this coup is called "glorious revolution". The glorious revolution is the beginning of the joint dictatorship of landlords, nobles and bourgeoisie. Its bill of rights limited the royal power, expanded the parliamentary power and laid the foundation of British constitutional monarchy.

Since then, the British parliamentary monarchy has gradually formed and developed, and the Whig Party and the Torre Party have long fought for power and profit. 17 14, the house of hanover entered Britain, and the Whigs gained political advantages for more than 60 years. During the term of R. walpole, the Privy Council, as the main advisory body of the king, developed into a cabinet, led by the leader of the parliamentary majority and responsible to the parliament. Walpole is actually the 1 prime minister of Britain (see table).

British history

the Industrial Revolution

After the victory of the bourgeois revolution, the primitive accumulation of capital was more rapid. Parliamentary decrees legalized enclosure and its scale expanded rapidly. Capitalist farms or pastures are built on vast occupied land, and farmers deprived of the means of production become "free" labor. The domestic market has expanded. During the period of 1689 ~ 1763, Britain and France fought for the colonies repeatedly. After the French bourgeois revolution broke out, the British government actively organized and participated in the anti-French alliance during 1793 ~ 18 15. Throughout the18th century, Britain became an international center for slave trafficking. At home, the government implements a protective tariff policy, which prevents the import of foreign goods with high tariffs, rewards the export of domestic industrial products and protects the development of domestic industry and commerce with low taxes. All these primitive accumulation methods provide the premise for the transformation of industrial production. /kloc-in the second half of the 0/8th century, machines appeared and began to be used in industrial production, marking the beginning of the industrial revolution. This change first occurred in the cotton textile industry. Shuttle was first used in loom on 1733, and was widely used in spinning machine in 1960s and 1970s. In the 1980s, the steam engine was put into use. With the expansion of the application of steam engines, especially the appearance of machine manufacturing, the industrial revolution has rapidly spread to various departments. By the thirties and forties of 19, machines had been used in all major industrial sectors, and the production of large machines had occupied a dominant position in the textile industry. Britain developed from an agricultural country to an industrial country, and the industrial revolution was basically completed. The industrial revolution changed the economic geography of Britain, and a number of large industrial cities appeared in the northwest where the population was also concentrated. /kloc-in the middle of the 0/9th century, Britain became a 1 world industrial power. The industrial revolution created two new classes ── the industrial bourgeoisie and the industrial proletariat, and their opposition and struggle became the basic contradiction of British industrial capitalist society.

Parliamentary Reform and Charter Movement

With the prosperity of the industrial revolution, the strength of the British industrial and commercial bourgeoisie has gradually grown. Their economic strength is growing rapidly, but they lack corresponding political rights. 65438+During the 1960s and 1970s of 2008, bourgeois activists and spokesmen for the interests of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie attacked the king's arbitrariness and parliamentary corruption, demanding that the electoral system be reformed, the "declining constituencies" be abolished, the right to vote be expanded, and representatives of the emerging bourgeoisie be added to the parliament. Their claims were supported by Whig nobles who were not trusted by King George III (reigned from 65438 to 1760). Whigs took some measures to further restrict the kingship. /kloc-At the end of 0/8, under the influence of the French Revolution, the lower classes started a movement demanding reform, hoping to gain political participation to improve their economic status, and made great contributions to the subsequent reform. 1830, under the pressure of people from all walks of life, the Whig C. Gray government proposed the parliamentary reform bill. After more than a year of struggle, the reform bill was passed by both houses of parliament and approved by the king in June 1832. 1832 1 parliamentary reform law slightly adjusted and expanded the right to vote, and the industrial bourgeoisie gained political rights and began to rank among the ruling classes. The parliamentary reform did not bring any benefits to the workers. They launched a new struggle for universal suffrage, and the Charter Movement rose. 1838, the London workers' association put forward the people's charter, demanding that the parliament be reformed according to democratic principles. The National Charter Association was founded in 1840. 1840, 1842 and 1848, the chartists launched three large-scale petitions to the parliament all over the country, and millions of people signed the petitions, but all the petitions were rejected and the movement was suppressed. After 1848, the trend turned to a low tide and gradually disappeared. Although the Charter Movement was unsuccessful, it left a valuable struggle legacy for the working class.

1The second half of the 9th century1The 1950s and 1970s were the heyday of British free trade capitalism. At that time, it was the reign of Queen Victoria, which was called "Victorian Age". During this period, Britain took the lead in completing the industrial revolution and became the "world factory". Its steel output accounts for more than half of the world total output, and its import and export trade accounts for more than 1/3 of the world total. London has become an international financial and trade center. 1832 After the parliamentary reform, the Tories and Whigs gradually transformed into modern bourgeois parties-the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party, and the two parties took turns to govern. Due to the consolidation of economic status, the bourgeoisie has also opened up more democracy and freedom politically. 1858, the restrictions on Jewish political rights were lifted. 1867 and 1884 carried out the second and third parliamentary reforms, which enabled the upper class of the urban and rural working class to obtain the right to vote. 1872, the parliament began to vote by secret ballot. The bourgeois government has also reformed the education system, the civil service system, the judicial system and the army. Reform has promoted the consolidation and development of the capitalist system.

It was mainly the ruling class that benefited from the economic prosperity at that time, and the working people were very labor-intensive and lived in poverty. However, the bourgeoisie gave a small part of their high profits to the upper working class and skilled workers, which improved their conditions. Therefore, these people advocate class cooperation, solve labor disputes through coordination, and the activities of workers' organizations should strive to improve working conditions and other benefits under the capitalist system and oppose strikes and other class struggles aimed at overthrowing the capitalist system. 1After the mid-9th century, a number of such trade union organizations appeared, and the Mixed Machine Workers Association (185 1) can be taken as a representative. They are organized by industry (a region or even the whole country), and only skilled workers are absorbed, while unskilled workers are excluded. They develop along the road of self-improvement, so they are called "new model" trade unions.

In the early 1960s, with the help of K. Marx and F. Engels, British workers engaged in political struggles, supported the struggles of the American and Polish people, participated in the creation of the First International, and strived for universal suffrage at home. 1868 held a trade union 1 national congress to demand political rights. In the 1980s and 1990s, the socialist movement revived, and socialist organizations such as Social Democratic Alliance (1884), Fabian Society (1884) and Independent Labor Party (1893) appeared. A new atmosphere has also emerged in the workers' movement, with the majority of unskilled workers organizing to strike and calling on workers to unite. 1900, representatives of trade unions, socialist organizations and political parties formed the Workers' Representative Committee, 1906, and the Committee was renamed the Labor Party. When the Labour Party was first established, it only absorbed members of groups and was an electoral alliance of various groups. 19 1 1 year, the British Socialist Party was founded.

colonial expansion

British colonies expanded violently in the19th century. Ireland merged in 180 1, and the official name of Britain became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The aggression against Asia continues to expand. /kloc-In the middle of the 9th century, he launched two Opium Wars to invade China and participated in suppressing the Taiping Revolution in China. Suppress the Indian national uprising from 1857 to 1859 and strengthen India's rule. 1876, the conservative cabinet b disraeli crowned queen Victoria, making her the queen of India. Since then, Britain has also been called the British Empire (or British Empire). In addition, it also expanded its aggression in Iran, Myanmar, South Africa, Egypt, East Africa, New Zealand and Australia, and gradually penetrated into South America, becoming the largest investor there. 1867, Canada became a dominion of Britain.

/kloc-At the end of 0/9th century, the focus of British colonial expansion shifted to Africa. It seized the control of the Suez Canal from France, then occupied Egypt (1882) and Sudan (1899), and actively participated in the war in which the colonial powers carved up West Africa, East Africa and Central Africa. He also participated in the Berlin Conference of 1884 ~ 1885 (1884), and stepped up his invasion of South Africa in order to realize the so-called "Plan II C" proposed by the imperialist C.J. Rhodes to build a large railway from Cape Town to Cairo (both Cape Town and Cairo are written with the initials "C"). Britain annexed Orange and Transvaal 19 took control of Asia, Myanmar and Afghanistan, 1900 took part in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China and got its hands on China and Tibet. By the end of 19 14, British colonies had spread all over the world, covering an area of 33.5 million square kilometers and a population of 394 million, making it the largest colonial empire in the world. 19 At the end of the 20th century, Britain turned to imperialism. 1902 there are 57 trust and other monopoly organizations in China, and some departments have joined the international monopoly alliance. Bank capital and industrial capital are integrated, and financial oligarchs and big banks control everything; Capital output has increased substantially. 1899 The income of rentiers exceeded four times that of foreign trade.

/kloc-In the 20th century, British science and culture made brilliant achievements. C.R. Darwin laid the foundation of biological evolution with the Origin of Species (1859). Byron, a talented poet, is famous for his outstanding romantic poems. He used his poems to attack the reactionary aristocrats and support the national liberation struggle. Therefore, he was expelled from the motherland by the rulers and died young in a foreign country. Dickens is the founder and the most famous representative of realism in the history of English literature, and a writer of the British people. His works reflect the sufferings of the lower working class in the heyday of British capitalism. F Hardy, Bernard Shaw and J John Galsworthy are famous representatives of English realistic literature from the end of/kloc-0 to the first half of the 20th century.

World War I

Britain and World War I After the 1970s, Britain gradually lost its industrial monopoly position. Later, Germany and the United States gradually overtook Britain, which led to unprecedented intensification of contradictions between them. At the beginning of the 20th century, Germany became Britain's most dangerous competitor. Faced with the grim situation, the British government actively expanded its armaments, especially its navy. 1908, the liberal government decided to implement the principle of "double strength standard" for the navy, that is, the tonnage of British warships should not be less than the sum of the tonnage of the two strongest naval powers. The cabinet of Asquith Liberal Party has also carried out some reforms aimed at improving the situation of working people, so as to stabilize the rear area. 19 14, Parliament passed the Irish Home Rule Act, but due to the outbreak of war, it was not put into practice until 192 1 (see color map). Ireland gained autonomy and established a free state of Ireland, and the six northern counties still belonged to Britain. Since then, the official name of Britain has been changed to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. In order to deal with Germany, Britain gave up the foreign policy of "glorious isolation" pursued by19th century. After 1907, the "three-country convention" between Britain, France and Russia has actually taken shape. It confronts the already formed "triple alliance (1882)" of Germany, Austria and Italy. 1965438+In August 2004, World War I broke out. During World War II, Britain sent an expeditionary force to the European continent and was one of the main participating countries in the Western Front. 1965438+In May 2006, the British and German navies fought a Jutland naval battle in the North Sea for maritime hegemony. 19 17, Britain finally defeated Germany's "unrestricted submarine warfare" and maintained its sea power. In the war, the total number of Chinese and British imperial fighters killed exceeded 500 thousand. At the beginning of World War II, the Liberal Party joined forces with the Conservative Party and the Labour Party to form coalition cabinet, and in 19 16, D. Lloyd George of the Liberal Party succeeded as prime minister, forming a five-member collective cabinet and taking power. In order to win the support of the masses, especially women, for the war, in 19 18, the parliamentary election law was reformed for the fourth time, and universal suffrage was implemented for all men and women over the age of 30. All adult women have the right to vote. 1918165438+10, the war ended in the defeat of Germany and other allies.