Freud's literary theory and traditional theoretical views of the connection, difference

Freud was a famous European psychologist and neurologist, and was the establisher of the psychoanalytic school. He gradually moved from physiological etiology to psychological etiology in his search for the causes of neurosis. He believed that human consciousness could be divided into three levels, i.e., conscious, preconscious and subconscious. In order to cure a neurotic patient, the motives and desires (mainly sexual impulses and desires) in the realm of bath consciousness must be tapped through the patient's free association. This is the way to get to the bottom of the problem.In 1895, Freud and Chor Ghayil published the book "Studies in Hysteria". This book laid the foundation for Freud's theory of psychoanalysis. 1896-1897, Freud, in his repeated and in-depth self-analysis, discovered that as a child he was passionately in love with his mother, while at the same time he was jealous and hostile to his father. This led him to create the theory of the "Oedipus complex". Broyles disagreed with Freud's views on sexuality, so Freud corresponded with another scholar, Fliess, to study the problem. in the late 1990s, in Russia and Poland, reactionaries brutally persecuted Jews. This persecution of Jews affected all of Europe. Freud was also ostracized and struck by racists. However, he continued his research and study of psychological problems in difficult circumstances. in 1900, he published the book "The Interpretation of Dreams". This was his masterpiece of psychoanalysis. 600 copies of this book were printed, but it was met with a cold reception after its release and it took eight years to sell out. Nevertheless, Freud became a nationally and internationally renowned psychologist of his own right at the beginning of the 20th century. 1909, he was invited by the president of Clark University in the United States to attend the 20th anniversary of the university. He was awarded an honorary doctorate. Since then his doctrines have gained increasing attention and have had a wide impact on the world. Freud stood alone and formed his own school of thought, making a great contribution to the study of psychology. The shortcomings of his psychoanalysis are (1) One-sided exaggeration of the role of the subconscious mind and depreciation of the role of the conscious mind, which inevitably falls into irrationalism. (2) Over-emphasizing the role of sexual instincts, which actually equates man with animals and reduces man to an animal. Freud's major works include The Interpretation of Dreams, Introduction to Psychoanalysis phase New Introduction to Psychoanalysis, and so on.

Freud's psychoanalytic method is to reveal the deep hidden thoughts and feelings by analyzing the psychological phenomena of human beings. He had a complete set of theories in this regard. First, he "affirmed that the mental processes themselves are all unconscious, and that those which are conscious are but isolated movements and localizations of the whole mental life." The unconscious is the subconscious. He emphasized the subconscious as the main aspect of mental activity. Mental activity is like an iceberg, and what lies beneath the surface of the water is the vast majority of the iceberg, the subconscious realm, while the conscious realm above the surface of the water accounts for only a very small part of the iceberg. Consciousness is the part of the mind that enables people to recognize themselves and their environment, while the subconscious is the hidden, deep part of the heart that people themselves are not aware of. Secondly, he believed that the instinctive impulses of sexuality play an enormous role in the causes of both neurological and psychological disorders, and that it is these sexual impulses that "contribute to the highest cultural, artistic, and social accomplishments of the human spirit in a way that cannot be overestimated in terms of their value". He believed that the subconscious realm was generally associated with the sexual instincts. He repeatedly argued that the subconscious is a special state of mind, a special mental process. Mental activity within the subconscious realm is more complex and subtle than conscious mental states. According to Freud, the conscious mind is the highest form of the human mental state. It controls the subconscious mind and keeps it at the bottom. The complex, mischievous and active subconscious mind rushes out again and again and is beaten back by the guardian. According to Freud, the "three-part personality structure" is the ego, the self, and the superego. These are the three components of the personality structure. The "ego" is the human instinct, including the instinct to live and the instinct to die. It is a biological impulse that is the source of man's primitive power. It is within the scope of the subconscious mind and demands the fulfillment of primitive instincts according to the principle of pleasure. Freud considered the instinct to continue the life of the individual and the race to be the "life instinct", or Ribidu. He also believed that in addition to the "life instinct," mankind has a "death instinct. It includes impulses such as "self-destruction," destructiveness, and aggression. The Self includes the life instinct and the death instinct. It is also known as "yidi" or "yid" due to different translations. It belongs to the subconscious and is not subject to reason, morality, law or social conventions. If it is allowed to flourish freely, it may cause serious consequences that are harmful to society and individuals. "Ego", which is the surface layer of the personality structure. It is the actualized instinct. At first, a baby has only an "ego". However, under the influence of the social environment, it gradually learns that it is only under certain conditions that it can successfully satisfy the needs of the "ego" and thus forms the "self". The instinct always aims at the pursuit of pleasure, but through the education of its teacher, necessity, it accepts the principle of truth. According to Freud, "This principle is, in the final analysis, also aimed at pleasure, but it is a pleasure that is prolonged and mitigated by the fact that the "ego" is the psychic regulator that protects the individual and controls the "I" so that the instincts do not become the "I" and the "ego" do not become the "I". The "ego" is the psychic regulator that protects the individual by controlling the "id" so that the instincts do not run amok and cause harm to society and the individual. According to Freud, the "ego" represents uncontrollable desire, while the "self" represents reason and forethought. The "superego", which is the moralized "ego". It is an integral part of the personality structure. The "ego" is guided by the principle of pleasure, the "ego" by the principle of reality, and the "superego" by the principle of morality. When Freud psychoanalyzed his patients, he found that many of them were y guilty of violating social morality, and even felt a sense of guilt. This shows that there is a part of the "superego" in their personality structure. This is the difference between human beings and animals. Animals have instincts. In contact with their environment, they develop their "ego" to a certain extent. But the "superego" is unique to human beings. The "superego" consists of two aspects: on the one hand, what is often called the "conscience", and on the other hand, the "ego-ideal". Under the influence of the social environment, especially the influence of parents, children not only develop their "ego", but also gradually develop a moral concept of right and wrong. According to Freud, during the long period of childhood, the growing person is dependent on his or her parents, leaving behind a sediment. This sediment constitutes a special organ within the ego that allows parental influence to persist over time. Within the child, this sediment of L1 is the parental personality and the social morality that has been passed down from generation to generation. This morality, conscience, and ideals constitute the "superego" of the personality. The "ego" plays a very good role in regulating people. It has to make sure that the requirements of the "ego" are satisfied, and it has to consider whether the conditions of the real environment allow it to do so, and whether the "superego" can pass through, i.e., whether it is in line with social morality. Therefore, the relationship between the "self", "ego" and "superego" in personality is very close.

Modernist writers have admired Freud and have been more or less influenced by the psychologist. Freud emphasized the human subconscious and sexual instincts as the driving force of human mental activity. He divided human mental mechanism and personality structure into three levels: conscious, preconscious and subconscious. He made a long and serious study of human psychopathology and dreams. According to him, dreams are the fulfillment of wishes, which are closely linked to the subconscious mind. Neuropathy is also rooted in the repression of the sexual instincts in the subconscious and the descent into the realm of fantasy. The subconscious and sexual instincts are also the driving force behind literary creation, through which writers give vent to their instincts and desires. He also argues that all dreams are egocentric and that writers daydream and they show egocentricity in their creations. These arguments of his had a significant impact on both the content and form of modernist literature. The modernist sub-discipline is characterized by a focus on the expression of the self and an emphasis on the expression of the subjective world in terms of content. The characters of modernist writers were often perverted, abnormal men or women. Some are insane, some are idiots, and some are sadists or masochists. Modernist writers also often depicted the sexual instincts of their characters. They were particularly interested in the human subconscious group depicted the mysteries of the human mind, and dug deep in psychological description. They are keen to describe the main character's nightmares, hallucinations, stream of consciousness, hints, symbols, free association and so on. For example, Ulysses, the masterpiece of stream-of-consciousness novels by the famous British modernist writer Joyce, depicts the sexual instincts and perverted psychology of the characters to the fullest extent. The heroine of the work, Maule, lacks rationality and has only primitive instincts and impulses. What is depicted at the end of the work are her dreams and streams of consciousness between half-awake and half-sleep. This jumping inner monologue is more than 40 pages long, with no punctuation in between. One part alone reads: "A quarter of an hour from now, at this very early hour, the Chinese will be up and combing their braids, and soon the nuns will be ringing the bells for morning prayers again, and they won't have anyone to disturb their sleep, except one or two eccentric priests who say their prayers late at night, and the alarm clock next door, which will be in full swing as soon as the chickens crow, will be in full swing." The characters here are completely obsessed with each other. What is shown here is the psychological state of the characters, which is obviously influenced by Freud. French stream-of-consciousness novels written by the representative writer of the "billions of years", up to 3 million words, all the main character a circle of memories, revealing the characters of the preconscious and subconscious, from beginning to end is a dream and stream of consciousness.

The Symbolists, Surrealists, New Novelists, Expressionists, and Absurdists of modernist literature were all influenced by Freudian doctrines, advocating the expression of the self, and often employing artistic techniques such as symbolism, fantasy, and suggestion. The Symbolists believed that art was not a reflection of the objective world, but a representation of the subjective world in the form of fantastic romance, depicting the mysteries of the author's heart. They believed that the writer's kingdom was the deep dream world. Their creations were closely connected with Freud's psychoanalysis. Freud's doctrine guided the modernist writers to dig deeper into the inner world of man, to make multi-level psychological depictions, and to expand the scope of literary reflection. On the other hand, since Freud unilaterally emphasized the subconscious and sexual instincts, which are the driving force of literary creation, and believed that literary creation is the expression of the self, these kinds of arguments obviously played a bad role in modernist literature.

26. What was Freud's view of literature?

27. What does Freud's The Creator and the Daydream consist of?

28. What are the main elements of Adler's doctrine?

29. What are the main elements of Jung's doctrine?

30. What were the main elements of William James's psychology? How does it relate to modernist literature?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

26.What was Freud's view of literature? Freud believed that the subconscious and sexual instincts were the driving force behind literary creation, the purification and sublimation of instinctive impulses. He used Sophocles' King Vadipus and Shakespeare's Hamlet as examples to illustrate this. He argues that the first object of sexual impulse in a man as a child is his own mother, and that because of his love for his mother, he is jealous and hates his father. In Oedipus Rex, King Oedipus kills his father and marries his mother is a kind of wish fulfillment, the fulfillment of people's childhood wishes. This kind of desire has been repressed into the subconscious mind for a long time. Once the literary scholar uncovers Oedipus's evil "as a result of human inquiry," "he makes us see our inner selves and realize that, despite their repression, these wishes still exist in the heart." He believed that the shocking power of fate in this tragedy must be caused by the fact that we have a similar cry within us, and therefore it causes us to ****. Freud believed that all boys have an attachment to their mother and father, and he called this repressed subconscious feeling the "Oedipus complex". In analyzing the image of Hamlet, Freud said: "Hamlet can do all the things, but to a man who killed his father, usurped his throne, took his mother helpless, that is because the man has done exactly what he himself has been long repressed childhood desire. And so the hatred of his enemy is replaced by the self-condemnation of his conscience, which tells him that he himself is actually no better than this murderer of his father's marriage." He argues that the same "Oedipus Knot of inertia" exists in Hamlet. At the same time, he believes that all girls love their fathers and are jealous of their mothers. He called this repressed feeling the "Elektra complex" because there is a story in Greek mythology that Elektra encouraged her brother to kill her mother to avenge her father's death. Freud emphasized that all literary works are the external manifestation of the writer's inner subconsciousness, which is the expression of "Oedipus complex" and "Elektra complex" in different forms and degrees. Freud believed that art is to express the author's unfulfilled desire and to give vent to the repressed instinctive desires in the form of art. He said: "Art is like daydreaming", and dreams are associated with fantasies, because "the dreams we have at night are no other than fantasies". The subconscious mind has all sorts of strong desires that are repressed and unsatisfied, so they are satisfied in dreams in the form of fantasies. Art is a day dream, again the fulfillment of the author's wishes, the catharsis of repressed feelings and instinctive desires. Freud, in The Interpretation of Dreams, uses writers such as Goethe and Holmholtz as examples of this problem. Goethe used to go to the house of Judge Buffu when he was a young man. He fell in love with Bufu's daughter Charlotte. When he learned that the girl was engaged to someone else, he felt a great deal of pain in his heart. Later, Goethe's good friend Ye Sha Lei fell in love with his boss's wife, because he could not get what he wanted and committed suicide in despair. Goethe heard the news, unusually excited. Like a dream, he conceptualized his famous work, The Trouble with Teenage Maintenance. The repressed sexual fire or love instinct within him sublimated into a great work of art. Freud believed that the artist creates because of unfulfilled desires. He "turns away from reality and transfers all his interest, all his instinctive impulses to the creation of the fantasy life he desires." Freud believed that literature is often the author's "self-disclosure" and is always "self-centered". He said, "We shall choose for discussion writers of romance, of long and short stories who are not pretentious, but who are equally popular with a wide range of men and women. Each of these writers has a protagonist who is the center of attention; and the author uses every means to win our sympathy for the protagonist, to place him under the protection of his special affection. If, at the end of a chapter, the hero is bleeding and unconscious from a serious injury, I am sure to find at the beginning of the next chapter that he is being nursed back to health with the utmost care. ...... I felt safe with the hero through thick and thin. ...... However, it seems to me that the important feature of this invulnerability is the clear disclosure of the "ego" of Majesty. All daydreams and the hero of the novel. He considered the ego to be "the protagonist of every daydream and every story". Freud believed that the artist was similar to the neurotic. The neurotic is dissatisfied with reality and leaves it for the world of fantasy. The artist also retreats from the reality he is dissatisfied with and burrows into the world created by his imagination. He differs from the neurotic in that he is still conscious and he knows how to find his way back to that world, while once again grasping reality. Freud also believed that by creating, the artist gives imaginary fulfillment to his own subconscious desires and also triggers and fulfills the reader's own subconscious desires. At the same time, the artist utilizes the perceptible pleasure of formal beauty to arouse the reader's aesthetic sense. Freud attached great importance to the formal beauty of literature. He believed that literary form must be dramatic, fantastical or imaginative, vivid and concrete. When writers and artists create, they can be like dreaming, taking the techniques of doubt, modification, transfer, inversion, set, etc., so that the works are romantic, dramatic, typical and symbolic. Typicality and symbolism. Freud's view of literature and art has a number of one-sided and biased views, but his use of modern psychology to study the creation of literature and art is not without merit.

27. What does Freud's The Creator and the Daydream consist of? Freud begins his essay "The Creator and the Daydream" by saying, "We amateurs have always been intensely curious - like the bishop who asked the same question of Ariosto - to know what kind of Where does the eccentric's (i.e., the creator's) material come from. And how he utilizes that material to make such a deep impression on us, and to stir up our emotions. --Perhaps we have never thought ourselves capable of such emotions! If we ask the writer about this, the fact that the writer himself will not explain it to us, or will not give us a satisfactory explanation, arouses our interest all the more "And even if we understand clearly the determining factors in his choice of material, and what is the nature of the art of creating fictionalized images, it will not help us to become creators. " According to Freud, exploring this aspect should go back to childhood to find the first traces of imaginative activity. There is nothing children love and are more enthusiastic about than the games they play. In playing he creates a world of his own, and satisfies himself by rearranging the things of his world in a new way. What the creator does is like the child in the swim. He creates a world of fantasy with great seriousness, while at the same time clearly separating it from the real world. This relationship between children's play and poetic composition is preserved in the language. Fuchs also says that when people grow up, they stop playing, as if they were going to give up the kind of pleasure they get from playing. But anyone who understands the human psyche knows that it is more difficult than anything else for a person to give up the pleasures he or she has experienced. The adult only turns the child's "game" into a "fantasy". He creates what we call "daydreams" in an imaginary castle. The adult's fantasizing is not as easy to detect as the child's play. Adults always hide their fantasies as if they were the deepest possessions of the individual: according to Freud, fantasies are motivated by unfulfilled wishes, and each fantasy is the fulfillment of a wish. Therefore a happy person will never fantasize, only a person with one unfulfilled wish will. Fantasies can be divided into two categories: the desires of ambition and the desires of sexual desire. If the fantasies become too rich and overpowering, the conditions are ripe for neurosis and psychotic episodes. The text goes on to say, "The dreams we have at night are also fantasies." "Language has long ago, in its incomparable wisdom, settled the question of the substance of dreams, and it has given the name of 'daydreams' to the vaporous creations of fantasy." Fuchs compares the imaginative writer to a "dreamer in broad daylight" and the writer's work to a daydream. A piece of work, like a daydream, is a continuation of a game played in early childhood and its substitute, even if it is a myth, and may well be a sign of what remains of the fantasies on which all peoples have pinned their aspirations, and of the long dream of man's youth, when it has been perverted. According to him, the "self" is the protagonist of every daydream and every story. The "good guys" in the story are the ones who help the "ego" to become the protagonist of the story, while the "bad guys" are the enemies or rivals of the "ego" or something like that. The "bad guys" are the enemies or rivals of the "self". In psychological fiction, the author seems to be sitting in the brain of the protagonist, while the rest of the characters are observed from the outside. The writer of the modern novel uses the method of self-observation to split his "self" into many "parts of self", as a result of which the conflicting ideas of his own mental life are reflected in several protagonists, and there are some novels which we can call "eccentric" novels. There are some novels, we may call them "eccentric" novels, which seem to be in very special contrast with the daydream genre. It is also written that the daydreamer is careful to hide his fantasies from others because he feels justified in being ashamed to talk about them. Moreover, even if he tells others about his fantasies, it does not necessarily bring them pleasure. But we feel a great deal of pleasure when a writer puts before us a play or a novel that he has written, or tells us what we take to be his personal daydreams on the page. It is the writer's task to overcome the aversion of our hearts through creative skill, to diminish the nature of his egoistic daydreams by altering and disguising them, and to buy us off by providing us with a pure form of enjoyment or pleasure, i.e., beauty, in the expression of his fantasies. We have given the name of "stimulant" or "premonitory pleasure" to such a pleasure; it is offered to us in order to make possible that greater pleasure which comes from a deeper spiritual source. I think that all the pleasures of beauty offered to us by a creator are in the nature of "premonitory pleasures," and are in fact the enjoyment given to us by a work of fiction," says Fourier.

28. What are the main elements of Adler's doctrine? Adler (1879-1937) was an Austrian psychiatrist. He was originally a believer in Freud. Later, he established the school of "personal psychology". The main contents of his doctrine are: First, he emphasized the wholeness and unity of the personality, unlike Freud, who divided the personality into three parts. Secondly, the unified personality and all kinds of spiritual activities have certain goals. Since the spiritual life has a clear goal, people can adapt themselves to the social environment. This spiritual goal is superiority. People take superiority as the general goal of their struggle, and all mental activities are centered on this general goal. According to Adler, "Whether he is striving for unattainable ideals or for ancient gods and goddesses, transgressing all limits and norms, in every part of his path he is guided and driven by his desire for superiority, his thought of comparing himself to the gods, and his belief in extraordinary magical powers." This striving argument of his is to emphasize the role of consciousness and reason, which is the opposite of Freud's emphasis on the subconscious and the irrational. Third, the desire for superiority is due to the existence of a sense of inferiority. This sense of inferiority originates in human childhood. As a toddler, man must depend on his parents or other people in order to survive. His weakness, powerlessness and ignorance make him feel inferior to the world around him. His fight against this feeling of inferiority is called "compensatory action". As compensation, he desires to eliminate his own inadequacies. According to Adler: "In this way, the child reaches the point of placing a goal, an imagined superior goal, whereby his poverty is transformed into wealth, his subordination into dominance, his misery into happiness and joy, his ignorance into omniscience, and his incapacity into artistic creativity. The longer and the more clearly the child feels his insecurity, the more he suffers either from bodily weakness or from conspicuous mental infirmity, the more clearly he perceives the playfulness of life, the higher will be this goal in which he has placed himself: and the more faithfully will he adhere to it." Later Adler changed the view of striving for the superior goal of the individual to that of the individual striving to make society perfect. His opinion is that striving for personal superiority may be beneficial or harmful. If a person is only concerned with the pursuit of personal superiority it may be harmful to society and result in the formation of a superiority complex. Such a person is extremely proud and arrogant, unselfish and domineering, so much so that everyone hates him. Adler's view of inferiority complex is still divided into two. On the one hand an inferiority complex can inspire a person to strive for excellence and to keep moving towards a set goal. On the other hand, a sense of self-complacency is often a source of neurosis. He says, "Every neurosis can be understood as an -'arsenic attempt by the patient to free himself from the feeling of inferiority in order to gain a sense of superiority." An excessive sense of inferiority can lead a person to a nervous breakdown and a nervous disorder. Adler called this condition the "inferiority complex." Adler's theory of "personal psychology" is not perfect, and many psychologists have criticized him. However, his theory contains materialism. He emphasized the influence of social environment and personal experience on human psychological activity, which should be recognized.

29. What is the main content of Jung's doctrine? Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist. He developed and revised Freud's psychoanalysis and established analytical psychology. He also believed that people have a subconscious mind, but unlike Freud, he did not view the subconscious mind as all about sexual urges and sin. Unlike Freud, he did not see the subconscious as all about sexual urges and sin. While Freud put forward the concept of "ego", he put forward the concept of "self" in addition to "ego". He also proposed the concept of "self" in addition to "ego". He believes that the "self" is included in the "self". The "self" is the subject of my consciousness, while the "self" is the subject of my totality. He believes that there is a difference between human beings, and that there are two different tendencies in the spiritual world of human beings, which he calls stereotypes. One tendency points to the inner world of man and the other to the external environment. On the basis of these two traits, he categorized two types of human psychology, namely, internally disturbed and externally inclined. People who are internally inclined are generally quiet, unsociable, and unwilling to reveal their inner thoughts and feelings to others. This kind of person loves to think about problems, is more imaginative, feels shy in front of others, and retreats from things. People who belong to the extroverted type are the complete opposite. They love to be lively, like to socialize, warm and straightforward to people, happy to help others, no chest, strong adaptability to the environment. According to Jung, the psychological types of people can be divided into two categories: extraversion and introversion. On the basis of this general classification can be further categorized according to the differences in basic psychological functions. He believed that there are four psychological functions in humans, which are thinking, feeling, sensing and intuition. He combined the general classification and the four psychological functions to further categorize personality into eight types: (1) Extraverted Thinking, which is both extraverted and able to think rationally and calmly. His thinking is characterized by objective information. According to Jung's experience, this type is "found chiefly among men". (2) The extroverted emotional type, which is very emotional, but "her emotions are in accordance with objective situations and general values". These people are generally women, enthusiastic and sociable, respecting rights and traditions, and adapting themselves to the objective environment as much as possible. (3) The externally feeling type, this kind of person emphasizes feeling, constantly pursues new and different sensory experiences, has a cheerful personality, and emphasizes enjoyment. Jung said, "His aim is concrete enjoyment, and his morality is of a similar tonal orientation." (4) Extraverted intuitive type, this kind of person does not do things based on objective conditions and facts, but on the intuition and neck sense of the mind. He enthusiastically pursues new things, "he has a keen sense of smell for all kinds of things that are still in the bud but have great future prospects." This kind of person's thoughts are unpredictable and will not stick to his own opinions for a long time. According to Jung, "Businessmen, contractors, speculators, brokers, politicians, etc. usually belong to this type." (5) Inward thinking type, this kind of people tend to subjective thinking, not interested in objective facts. They like to live in their own little world and are emotionally repressed. (6) Emotionally introverted type, this type of person is quite secretive in his thoughts and feelings and does not like to talk and socialize with others. This type is generally women. According to Jung, "The poise of their appearance is harmonious and unobtrusive; they exude a pleasant calm ......." (7) The introverted feeling type, this type of person has a strong feeling for objective situations, has a quiet character, and is long on image thinking. Artists generally belong to this type. (8) introverted intuitive type, this is a more peculiar type. This kind of person is good at dreaming, thinking grotesquely and detached from reality. He values perception and guides his life by personal experience. He may be an uneven eight artist or an unappreciated genius.

30. What are the main elements of the psychology of William James's period? How does it relate to modernist literature? William. James (1842-1910) was a famous American psychologist. He was the founder of Functionalist Psychology and one of the founders of American Pragmatist Philosophy. Functionalist psychology is essentially pragmatist psychology. Pragmatism is characterized by the philosophy that "existence is useful" and the test of truth and goodness is "whether it is good for me". James applied the philosophy of pragmatism to psychology, and in 1890 published Principles of Psychology, a monograph that laid down the theory of functionalist psychology. His theory of psychology has the following main elements. First, he believed that psychology belongs to the scope of natural science, which is "the science of the phenomena of mental life and their conditions". Secondly, human consciousness, which is the object of psychological research, is like an endless stream of water. He said, "Consciousness itself does not manifest itself in a number of fragmentary pieces. Words like 'chain' or 'train' do not adequately describe the state in which it first manifests itself. It is not something connected; it is flowing. 'River' or 'stream' is the metaphor most adequate to describe it realistically. Hereafter we speak of it either as a stream of thought, a stream of consciousness, or a stream of subjective life." He thinks that consciousness is constantly changing, and that "consciousness is always interested in some parts of its object and excludes others," i.e., it is always choosing its object. Thirdly, he believed that there are three methods in psychology, namely, introspection, experimentation and comparison. He emphasized that "introspective observation is the one on which we must rely first and foremost and often. ...... It means, of course, peering into our own psyche and reporting what we find there." In order to utilize the experimental method, he set up a small psychology laboratory at Harvard University. He believed that the comparative method could supplement the introspective and experimental methods. For example, psychologists often studied the instincts of various animals and compared them with human instincts. Fourth, James also put forward the ideas of instinct theory, habit theory and emotion reduction. He attributed many of the complex psychological phenomena of mankind to instincts. He believed that "every instinct is an impulse" and that "human beings have a greater variety of impulses than lower animals". As for the relationship between instincts and habits, his view is that "the great majority of instincts are given for the sake of causing habits". According to him, "Habits which have a natural tendency are called instincts, and certain habits which are attributed to education are called by the great majority of men the actions of reason". His main point in the theory of emotions is that human emotions are not caused by the objective world, but by internal changes in the body and external expressions. "We therefore feel sad because we weep, annoyed because we attack, and afraid because we tremble, and it is not because we are sad, annoyed, or afraid that we weep, attack, or tremble." The psychology of James is in the service of a capitalist society and has many faults and fallacies. The greatest influence of his doctrine on modernist literature is the argument about stream of consciousness. The stream-of-consciousness school of fiction in modernism is about writing about the stream of consciousness of people. As an artistic technique, the stream of consciousness technique is widely used in modernist literature.