Nicomachean Ethics Chinese Version

Zi Xi of the state of Chu summoned Wang Sun Sheng, and Zi Gao asked Zi Xi, "How do you want to use him?" Zi Xi said, "I want him to guard the border between Chu and Wu. He is a man who shows but does not believe, loves but is not kind, swindles but is not wise, is resolute but is not brave, is straight but is not heartfelt, and is circumspect but is not ladylike. Repeat the words but do not seek the body, show also; love but do not seek to grow, not benevolent also; to seek to cover the people, fraud also; strong tolerance to violate the righteousness, perseverance also; straight but do not care about, not heart also; weekly speech abandoned virtue, not lady also. The six virtues have their own splendor, but not their own reality; how will they be used?" (The State Language, Volume 18, under Chu, page 584)

Zi Gao here used the method of comparison to contrast the six auspicious virtues and the six vicious virtues which are similar to but not the same as these six virtues, in order to show the difference between the auspicious virtues and the vicious virtues, i.e.

The letter ---- exhibition/ren ---- love/wisdom ---- swindling/courage ---- perseverance/carefulness ---- straightforwardness/luxury ---- Zhou

The left side of "letter, benevolence ---- love/intellect ---- swindle/bravery ---- perseverance/carefulness ---- straightness/shuk

Shen Shushi of the State of Chu, in clarifying how the crown prince should be taught, cited the Spring and Autumn Period, the World, Poetry, Rites, Music, Orders, Words, Old Records, and the Canon of Discipline, etc., and at the same time pointed out that:

If he is and does not follow, and if he is not reformed and is not moved, then he will write and chant in order to carry out the work, and will seek to be virtuous and good in order to wing the work. Informed and not taken, the body of the diligent, more training typical to the inclusion of the prudent Dundu to solid. If they are reformed but not thorough, then they will be able to guide their loyalty by giving alms, their trust by being long-lasting, their righteousness by measuring, their manners by ranking, their filial piety by respecting and thrifting, their deeds by honoring and warning, their benevolence by loving, their culture by showing benefits, their martial arts by removing harms, their penalties by being precise, their rewards by correcting virtues, and their presence by showing respect and dignity. If this is not the case, it is not possible.

And the recitation of poetry to complement each other, the authority to successive, body appearance to the left and right, the Ming line to declare the wing, the system of section of righteousness in order to move the line, respect to the supervision of the Lin, diligence to persuade, filial piety and obedience to the Na, faithfulness and faith to the hair of the moral sound to the Yang. Those who call for preparation but do not follow it are not human beings. (Guoyu, Volume 17, Chu yu Shang, page 531)

Shen Shushi advocated that, in addition to the teaching of literature, moral indoctrination should also be given to guide and cultivate the virtues of the crown prince, which are: loyalty, faith, righteousness, propriety, filial piety, benevolence, service, literature, martial arts, reward, punishment, and proctors. ***Twelve, the first six are more general ethical virtues, the last six are political virtues needed by the ruler of the state. Here, "matter" is to engage in respect and prudence; "reward" refers to the fairness of reward, good reward to encourage the virtuous; "punishment" refers to the quality of right and wrong, the correct implementation of punishment; "Lin" is a kind of serious temperament of the king under the people.

It can be seen that at that time, courage, benevolence, filial piety, and wisdom are virtues, and their opposites, non-courage, non-benevolence, non-filial piety, and non-wisdom, as ethical norms play an important role in mediating human behavior. As Nameless has said earlier, the de mou of the Spring and Autumn Period is both the de mou of virtues and virtues, and their negative form "non-" is also the normative code for judging and restricting social behaviors.

From the above, we can see that "benevolence" as a virtue was already highly valued in the Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn Periods, but except for the "Yi Zhou Shu? However, except for the "nine acts of the Emperor" in "The Book of the Zhou", in which "benevolence" was the first of the nine acts, "benevolence" was only one of the many virtues in most occasions, and its status was not more prominent than that of all the other virtues. At the same time, we can also see that "love" as a major connotation of "benevolence" has been gradually formed in the Spring and Autumn Period.

Three: Comparison of various lists of virtues in the Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn Period

Now we simplify and arrange the lists of virtues and virtues in the Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn Period as follows:

Nine virtues: filial piety, fraternal duty, charity, beneficence, loyalty, forgiveness, neutrality, respectfulness, broad-mindedness, warmth and straightness, and martial arts (BaoDian explanation)

Ten virtues: quietness, rationality, intelligence, purity, martial arts, faith, letting, fame, fruition, and chastity (Ibid.)

Nine Acts: benevolence, conduct, letting, speech, solidity, beginnings, righteousness, intention, and courage (Wen Zheng Xie)

Nine Thoughts: courage, intention, governance, solidity, faith, letting, conduct, and benevolence (ditto)

Nine Virtues: loyalty, compassion, reward, and reward ------(ditto)

Nine Guardianships: benevolence, wisdom, solidity, and faith ------(ditto)

Nine Virtues: loyalty, faith, respect

Five Teachings: Righteousness, Compassion, Friendship, Respect, Filial Piety (Wengong 18th year of biography)

Six Virtues: Consultation, Inquiry, Degree, Suwa, Counseling, and Zhou (under the language of Lu)

Three Virtues: Righteousness, Harmoniousness, Benevolence, Obedience, and Correctness (under the language of Zhou)

Four Virtues: Faithfulness, Benevolence, Faithfulness, and Righteousness (under the language of Zhou)

Three Virtues: Benevolence, Wisdom, courage (Jin 2)

Four virtues: wisdom, benevolence, courage, and learning (Jin 7)

Six virtues: faith, benevolence, wisdom, courage, zhi, and zhou (under the language of Chu)

Four virtues: benevolence, faith, loyalty, and sensitivity (9 years of the Duke Cheng's reign)

The eleven virtues: respect, loyalty, faith, benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, courage, teaching, filial piety, favor, and letting (under the language of Zhou)

Twelve virtues: loyalty, faith, righteousness

The Twelve Virtues: loyalty, faith, righteousness, courtesy, filial piety, benevolence, service, literature, martial arts, reward, punishment, and pro (Chu)

From the above, we can see that the Spring and Autumn Period can be said to be an "era of virtue". Taking the above list of statistics, in order of the number of occurrences, with more at the front and less at the back, the following eight items are the most numerous: benevolence, faith, loyalty, filial piety, righteousness, courage, letting go, and wisdom. In these different lists of virtues, the order of importance of the virtues is arranged differently, and statistically, "loyalty" and "benevolence" are placed in the first place the most often, but of course, this is only in respect of the ones we list here. Moreover, we cannot say that the virtues that appear more often are necessarily more important than those that appear less often. This is because, firstly, the information in our possession does not necessarily reflect the actual situation of history in its entirety, and secondly, such statistics leave out specific narratives and explanations, and therefore do not represent a substantive description. For example, if a certain Deuteronomy does not appear many times, but on those occasions, this Deuteronomy is narrated as more important than the others. Obviously, in this case, the importance of this deen cannot be ignored just because of the small number of occurrences of this deen.

Finally, we will briefly discuss the so-called "formal virtues" mentioned earlier. By formal virtues, we mean the following qualities described in ancient Chinese texts:

Straight and warm, broad and chestnut, firm but not abusive, simple but not arrogant. (Shun Dian)

Broad and chestnut, soft and chestnut, willing and respectful, disorganized and respectful, disturbed and resolute, straight and warm, simple and clean, rigid and stuffy, strong and righteous. (Gaotao Muo)

The words "warm and straight", "respectful", and "kind". (Baodian Interpretation)

Qi, Sheng, Guang, Yuan, Ming, Yun, Duk, Cheng (18th year of the Duke of Wen)

Zhong, Su, ****, Yi, Xuan, Ci, Hui, He (18th year of the Duke of Wen)

Respect, Thrift, Jean, Consultation (under the Zhou Dynasty)

Zheng, Duan, Cheng, Shen (under the Zhou Dynasty)

We should remember the explanation in the Guoyu about the Cheng of Shen as being upright and correct. Seeing without return, Duan is also. Hearing without sound, Cheng also. Words without distance, prudent also." The 16 virtues described in the 18-year biography of the Duke of Wen, "Qi, Sheng, Guang, Yuan, Ming, Yun, Duk, Cheng, Zhong, Su, ****, Yi, Xuan, Ci, Hui, and He," most typically represent the so-called formal virtues.

Naturally, these virtues are aristocratic virtues, associated with the ruling class, as follows:

In the eighth year of King Ding's reign, he asked Liu Kang Gong to hire him at Lu, and sent coins to the great masters. Ji Wenzi and Meng Xianzi were frugal, while Shusun Xuanzi and Dongmenzi's families were extravagant. On his return, the king asked who was the best of Lu's ministers, and he said, "A minister must be a minister, and a ruler must be a ruler. Wide, clean and favorable, the king also; respect, respect and thrift, the minister also. Wide, so to protect the original also; Suh, so to help the time also; Xuan, so to teach Shi also; Hui, so and the people also. This has to be solid if you have to keep, when you move and Ji is not a failure, teaching and publicizing is all over the world, and the people and the benefits of the Fu. ------敬，所以承命也；恪，所以守业也；恭，所以给事也；俭，所以足用也。 ------" (Guoyu, vol. 2, Zhou yuzhong, 76 p.)

In the preaching of Liu Kanggong, it is the virtue of the ruler to be generous and solemn, to be appropriate and favorable, and the virtue of the minister to be respectful and respectful and frugal. Of course, this distinction is not absolute, especially, in the lordly feudal system, where a ruler's minister is at the same time the ruler of his vassal. So members of the ruling class in feudalism were required to have various virtues appropriate to their status.

On the other hand, virtues such as qi, sheng, guang, yuen, and so on, can be said to belong to "ritual ethics" or "ritual virtues". At the same time, the fulfillment of these virtues did not only serve the requirements of the ritual culture, but as the main part of the goal of cultivating personal character, they embodied the ideal of personality of the aristocratic society and the ritual culture of the time for the comprehensive development of human character. What these formal virtues seek is not the special norms of ethical relations, but more the general perfection of personality and disposition.

IV. From Ritual Ethics to Virtue Ethics

The word "virtue" is also written in ancient times as "upwardly straight and downwardly centered," which is interpreted in the Shuo Wen as "externally gaining access to people and internally gaining access to oneself," with externally gaining access to people meaning that one's "behavior" is affirmed and approved of by others, and internally gaining access to oneself referring to the individual's internal possession of good "character". "character". Therefore, the ancient Chinese character "德" is not only a concept of virtue in the internal sense, but also a concept of virtue in the external sense, and the concept of "德行" expresses these two meanings of virtue together. Understanding this, we can only understand why there are so many entries of "external to man" in the literature from Yao Dian to the late Spring and Autumn period. At the same time, the historical development of the Spring and Autumn culture shows that "virtue" is becoming more and more internalized. The externalization of virtue is compatible with the ritual culture, and the internalization of the requirements of virtue is precisely accompanied by the disintegration of the ritual order. Of course, this is not to say that "德" only has inner meaning in the middle of Spring and Autumn period, in fact, "德" already has inner meaning in the beginning of Western Zhou Dynasty, but the inner meaning of the word "德" overpowers the outer meaning, it is after Spring and Autumn period. However, it was after the Spring and Autumn Period that the inner meaning of the word "德" overpowered the outer meaning. Therefore, as far as ancient times are concerned, "德行" is more suitable for translating or expressing the concept of "德" than the concept of "德性", which is a purely internal concept of virtue. In the early days, the concept of "virtue" encompassed the meanings of both virtues and virtues, therefore, the early Confucian literature "The Five Elements" still referred to "benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and saintliness" as the five "elements". It can be seen that "virtue" and "conduct" were originally related. The Five Elements says, "Benevolence in the internal form is called the Act of Virtue," and "Failure in the internal form is called the Act of Virtue," which means that purely external behavior that does not involve the internal form is called the Act of Virtue, and the internal nature of virtue is called the Act of Virtue. This means that purely external behavior that does not involve the inner self is called "behavior," and the inner virtues are called "acts of virtue," i.e., virtues. The so-called "gentleman" is the one who has the "act of virtue" that is "shaped within" and who practices the "act of virtue" that is "shaped within" and "acts in time". "Therefore, it is said, "The five elements are shaped internally, and when they are practiced, they are called a gentleman. The scholar who aspires to the way of the gentleman is called a scholar".

In the Spring and Autumn Period, it is already obvious that some **** the same standards about virtue, the countries in the Central Plains, including Qin and Chu, with similar language of virtue and a similar table of virtues, evaluation and standardization of human behavior and character. Perhaps it can be said that the Spring and Autumn period, in a certain sense, has shifted from the era of rites and music to the era of virtues, that is, the regulation of "rites" (music) is mainly transformed into the regulation of "virtues" (behavior) is mainly the normative system. The normative system of a society is associated with cultural change, and will change with cultural change, and sociology provides many similar examples.

Aristotle said: "All virtues are created and destroyed through habit, and people have certain qualities through corresponding real activities." The cultural significance of "ritual" is to organize and socialize people through habits, customs and ritual activities. In this sense, the result of "ritual" culture is inevitably related to the thinking of virtue, which inevitably leads to a certain kind of virtue theory and makes virtue an inherent component of the unfolding of ritual culture.

Mr. Miao Litian, in his translator's afterword to Aristotle's ethical works, says: "The word virtue, which is nowadays often rendered in popular terminology as virtue in relation to the English virtue, has a much wider and deeper connotation in the vocabulary of Plato and Aristotle." "arete", the original meaning but refers to combat courage, martial skill, spiritual fearlessness", can be seen even in ancient Greece, arete is not a completely internalized concept, but should include the virtues and virtues, i.e., in the ethical sense of the near virtues.

But the move toward internalization seems to have been a downward trend in ancient culture, and Weber argues that, in the history of religion, the early development of "what ought to be done religiously" was embodied in the "norms of rite and ritual," and that it was the conduct that concerned itself with not violating these conducts that was the main concern. It was concerned with behavior that did not violate these norms of behavior, such as taboos, such as the norms of ritual and liturgy, and to accept the solemnity of these norms. However, with the development of history and culture and reason, there arose the demand for "breaking through the fixation of individual norms" and the change of "internalization", i.e., it is no longer concerned with what are the external ritual norms, but more concerned with "intention", "intention", "intention", "intention", "intention", "intention", "intention", "intention", "intention", "intention", "intention" and "intention". intention," "thought," and so on. As Weber puts it, "It does not recognize a 'divine law' but a 'divine mind' which may recognize different norms according to the circumstances. circumstances and recognize different norms." Weber even called the act of focusing on ceremonial rituals "ritual ethics" and the internalized one "mental ethics". The "rites of passage" of the Spring and Autumn period also had such a meaning. In this sense, to say that the development of Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn Period thought was from "ritual ethics" to "virtue ethics" not only means that "virtue ethics" was an intermediate stage from externalization to internalization, but also implies that "virtue ethics" was an intermediate stage from externalization to internalization, but also implies that "virtue ethics" was an intermediate stage from externalization to internalization.

The "ethics of virtue" is not only an intermediate stage of development from externalization to internalization, but also implies that "ethics of virtue" is a combination of internal and external rather than internal and external in type.

"Ritual" is certainly not the taboo system of primitive religions, but the system of ceremonial norms of quite advanced civilizations, but it is still a kind of external constraint system, the constraint system of "ceremonial norms". When the ritual society can no longer be maintained, when the ritual order is in crisis, the system of virtue must develop. In the process of the rise of ethical spirit from self-existence (habit) to self-awareness (inner), from the relatively negative "rites" to the more positive "virtues," the system of ceremonial norms will inevitably be introduced into the system of virtues and will eventually give way to the dominant position in the system of virtues, and the self-awareness of the spirit will also be given a significant leap. The spiritual self-consciousness also takes a major leap forward.

V. Types of Virtue

Finally, there is a general discussion of the problems of virtue theory.

From the late Western Zhou Dynasty to the Spring and Autumn Period, the system of virtue can be said to have undergone a process of development. In discussing the ancient system of virtue theory, we will deal with the problem of categorizing virtues. In Aristotle's ethics, virtues are categorized into two types, one is "rational virtues" and the other is "ethical virtues". For example, good planning is a rational virtue, while generosity and moderation are ethical virtues. In ancient China, there were also rational and intellectual virtues, such as the "wisdom" mentioned earlier, "nothing is as good as consulting", "wisdom to deal with things", as well as what Shusun Bao said, "consulting, These are all rational and intellectual virtues. However, it is obvious that, compared with Aristotelian ethics, the rational virtues of ancient China do not occupy a major position in the system of virtue theory. Moreover, the so-called "wisdom" in ancient China was more the wisdom and intelligence to deal with practical matters, unlike Aristotle's discursive reasoning which emphasized theoretical thinking.

Based on the aforementioned ancient system of virtues, we can distinguish the whole of ancient Chinese virtue theory into four types:

The virtues of disposition: qi, sheng, guang, yin, kuan, sui, ming, yun

The virtues of morality: ren, yi, yin, yan, jing, shu, xin, li

The virtues of ethics: filial piety, compassion, fraternity, respect, love, friendship, loyalty

The virtues of reasoning The first "virtue of temperament" and the fourth "virtue of reason" can stand on their own, I think, without any problem, and the difference between them and the other virtues is very obvious. The "virtue of disposition," which we called formal virtue earlier, refers to the general mental disposition of human beings; it was emphasized in ancient times, naturally in connection with the ritual and music culture of the Zhou Dynasty, but has also been emphasized in later Chinese culture. What may be discussed is how to separate "moral virtues" from "ethical virtues" and whether there is a need to do so. What we want to convey in our distinction is that ethical virtues are virtues that are linked to the norms of direct interpersonal ethical relationships, while moral virtues are relatively more personal moral behaviors.

McEntire emphasizes that in ancient Greece virtue was the nature of the individual's fulfillment of his or her social role. While all four of the above categories of virtues could certainly be said to be required of the aristocrat to fulfill his or her ruling role, there were differences in the degree to which each category was associated with the social role. For example, in the eighth year of the reign of Wen Gong in the Zuo Zhuan (《左传》), the "Five Teachings": "Father's righteousness, mother's kindness, brother's friendship, brother's ****, son's filial piety," in this vein, virtues are directly related to the roles in social and ethical relations. On the other hand, loyalty, which is doing one's best in public affairs, and faith, which is honoring one's profession, are less related to specific roles in ethical relationships and are closer to universal virtues. In addition, Liu Kanggong's statement that "to be lenient and generous is for the ruler; to be respectful, respectful and frugal is for the minister" (Zhou yuzhong) can help us to understand that certain virtues were required mainly for the ruler or the ruling class at that time, but it does not mean that benevolence, righteousness, propriety, filial piety, fraternal duty, courage, and trust were not required by the ruling class. It only means that some virtues were generally required in general, and at the same time, certain other virtues were emphasized more because of their specific social roles. Undoubtedly, in the feudal era of the Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn Period, the theory of virtues was mainly about the virtues and norms of the nobles, because the nobles assumed the responsibility of social management and held power, and therefore it was especially necessary to emphasize the requirements of virtues that enabled them to perform their duties and power correctly. At the same time, this does not in any way mean that these virtues proposed for the aristocracy are not of general significance for other classes and even for those who came after them.

McEntire notes that in Homer's heroic society, "it is a system of clearly defined and highly deterministic roles in which everyone has an established role and status, and in which the key structures are those of kinship and family. In such a society, a person recognizes who he is by recognizing his role in the system, and through this recognition he also recognizes what he ought to do." The fact that one recognizes one's role does not mean that one recognizes what one should do, nor does even recognizing what one should do mean that one is motivated to do what one should do. Western Zhou to the Spring and Autumn Period, basically belongs to the feudal society of patriarchal politics, in this social structure, the role and position of each person is determined by the patriarchal relationship. In this social structure, everyone's role and position was determined by the patriarchal relationship, and the person in each position had corresponding obligations to the superior and the inferior at the same time, such as father's kindness, son's filial piety, brother's friendship and brother's respect. The patriarchal system required the virtue of the family, while the political system required the responsibility for public **** affairs and the corresponding obligations to the superior subordinates, thus creating different requirements for virtue. Although the Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn Periods were characterized by the determination of political identity by patriarchal identity, political virtues additional to patriarchal virtues also arose when one assumed public **** positions in accordance with patriarchal identity.

Ancient Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn period, the theory of virtue was closely related to politics, and it is no accident that the scholarly class was "keen on the question of the character of politicians" because the culture and structure of this life demanded that "the practice of virtue be used to solve political problems". During the Spring and Autumn period, the theory of virtue was fully developed, with a wide range of virtues and various lists of virtues. By the mid- to late Spring and Autumn period, the various virtues were gradually centralized, but still not definitive. Although Aristotle said that ethics studies the goodness of the individual and political science studies the goodness of the crowd, in the patriarchal society where ethical relations are political relations, the goodness of the individual is associated with the community life of the crowd. It should also be noted that changes in the system of virtues will reflect socio-cultural changes, but one's understanding of the relationship between virtues and society continues to grow, and this understanding will also lead to changes in the system of virtues.

VI. Qualities of Confucius and Early Confucian Ethics

Some scholars have argued that Confucian ethics is a kind of virtue ethics. Generally speaking, the so-called virtue ethics (virtue ethics) in Western ethics takes the typical form of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics in ancient Greece. Contemporary philosopher MacIntyre attaches great importance to Aristotle's tradition of virtue ethics, and believes that discarding this tradition is a major failure of modern Western culture.

In normative ethics, "principles" are used as the basis for judging right and wrong behavior. This theory focuses attention on judgments of right and wrong behavior, rather than on those who are motivated to act, the human being. However, in the practice of evaluation in a broad sense, we not only judge the behavior of a person, but also usually judge what kind of person a person is, and judge the quality of a person as a whole, such as saying "he is a good person", that is, this kind of thing. Therefore, to evaluate the value of a person, not only to see what specific obligations and principles he has fulfilled, but also to summarize his overall character and quality.

The ancient Chinese system of virtue theory, compared to Aristotle, on the one hand, the theoretical analysis is relatively small, but on the other hand, the number of entries of virtue, the system of virtues, virtues are emphasized by the prominence of the system, seems to be more than ever. During the 280 years of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476BC), the ethics of virtue had developed considerably. However, due to the differences in time and place, the entries of these virtues or the language used to describe them were scattered and not easily unified. Nevertheless, in the late Spring and Autumn period, we have already seen a tendency to centralize the entries of virtues and moral discourse.

Confucius (551-479BC) was the synthesizer and summarizer of virtue theories in the Spring and Autumn period, and the founder of the Confucian system of virtue, which inherited and developed the concepts of virtue from the Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods. Confucius added a new moral spirit to the system of virtue theory of ritual and music culture, so that the Confucian system of virtue both inherited and developed the Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn period's virtue theory.

On the other hand, if we carefully examine the Analects, which recorded Confucius' remarks, we will find that most of the discourses in the Analects are mostly not expositions on the purpose of virtue. Compared with the era of the Spring and Autumn period, Confucius can be said to have less discourse in the form of entries on virtues. More strikingly, unlike in the Spring and Autumn period, Confucius discussed moral issues with a large number of discourses on "The Gentleman ......," discussing the personality, norms, and ideals of the scholar-gentleman. This is the fundamental characteristic of Confucius' moral thought. These discourses are not expressed in the form of moral purpose, but in the form of life teaching, with "gentleman" as the fundamental concept of the whole personality, explaining what is a good behavior, a good state, a good ideal, and a good personality. In this sense, although Confucius's ethics contains a traditional virtues-oriented approach, the whole of his thought has already transcended the form of virtue ethics.

Confucius's thought, as recorded in the Analects, is rarely discussed in the form of a list of virtue programs, except for two references to benevolence, wisdom, and courage. This implies that Confucius did not want to present a different schedule of virtues from the previous ones. As far as virtues are concerned, what stands out in the Analects, and what distinguishes Confucius from the Spring and Autumn Annals and his predecessors, is that Confucius particularly emphasizes the virtue of ren. The Lüshi Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals) says that "Confucius valued benevolence," which highlights the character of virtue theory in Confucius' thought and the dominant feature of his entire thought. Confucius' discussion of benevolence differs from that of the pre-Spring and Autumn period in that, firstly, he repeatedly discusses benevolence as a person (benevolence appears more than 100 times in the Analects); secondly, he divides benevolence into several different levels, with benevolence at the highest level being the entirety of virtue that transcends individual specific virtues; and lastly, before the Spring and Autumn period, people used the terms "rites" or "non-rituals" as a basis for discussing benevolence. Finally, before the Spring and Autumn Period, people used "rites" or "non-rituals" as the highest principle of evaluation, while in Confucius' thought, it is obvious that "ren" has a higher status than "rites".

It is also worth noting that "ren" is not only "virtue", but also "way", that is to say, ren is not only virtue, but also principle.

Tzu said: "Wealth and nobility are the desires of men, and if they do not obtain them by their way, they do not live in them. Poverty and lowliness are the evils of men; if they do not obtain them by their way, they do not go there. If a gentleman goes to benevolence, how can he become famous? If a gentleman does not violate benevolence between the end of his life and the end of his food, he will do so, and he will do so when he is in a state of upheaval." (Li Ren)

Here, "not by his way", his way is the way of benevolence, and the "benevolence" that a gentleman does not violate is this way of benevolence. This is the principle of morality.

Ren is not only the principle of treating the rich and the poor, but also the fundamental principle of moral behavior. Confucius' disciple Zhong Gong once asked Confucius about benevolence, and Confucius replied, "Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you" (Yan Yuan). In this way, benevolence is a fundamental principle of relationship between human beings and themselves, and it is also the basic moral principle - the Golden Rule - proclaimed by today's world ethical movement and affirmed by religions around the world.

This principle of benevolence is not only the principle of dealing with the rich and the poor, but it is also the fundamental principle of moral behavior.

This principle is also known as the "Way of Loyalty and Forgiveness":

Tzu said, "I am a man of honor! My Way is consistent." Zeng Zi said, "Only." The disciple asked, "What is the meaning of this?" Zeng Zi said, "The Way of the Husband, loyalty and forgiveness only." （

According to Zeng Zi's understanding, what Confucius meant by the consistent way is the way of loyalty and forgiveness, and the so-called way of loyalty and forgiveness is the way of benevolence, which is "what you do not want others to do to you, do not do to them.

Zi Gong asked, "Is there a word that can be practiced for a lifetime?" Zi said, "Forgiveness! Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you." (Wei Linggong)

Confucius here explicitly refers to "Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you" as "forgiveness", affirming that "Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you" is It is "a word that can be practiced for a lifetime". This statement is consistent with Zeng Zi's understanding of loyalty and forgiveness as the consistent way. In other words, "Do not do unto others as you would not have them do unto you" is the consistent "way" advocated by Confucius. From Confucius' reply to Zhong Gong's explanation of benevolence by saying "Do not do unto others as you would not have them do unto you," it is evident that benevolence in Confucius' thought is not only a "virtue," but also a "way. Thus, from the perspective of the Golden Rule and the consistent way of loyalty and forgiveness, Confucius's ethical thinking cannot all be reduced to "virtue ethics," for Confucius speaks more of guidelines, laws, rules, and principles. What Confucius meant by the consistent "Way" was not those unilateral virtues, but the fundamental principles and laws of social and moral life.

From the virtues of a gentleman to the consistent "Way", it can also be seen that Confucius's moral thought has transcended the limitations of the patriarchal society, and the golden rule of "Do not do unto others as you would not have them do unto you" can not be understood as patriarchal morality or patriarchal ethics, and Confucius's ideas are beyond the limitations of special social relations. Confucius's ideas are universal moral reflections on human and social life that transcend special social relations.

From Sidgwick onwards, and especially in contemporary ethics, the priority of good/right has been used to define the character and form of a particular ethical thought. When Confucius is viewed within this framework, there is no doubt that his thought starts from the "good".

Looking at Confucius' thought, it can be said that his concern is a problem of life as a whole. He was not concerned with a specific behavior, but with what is a good personality, what is an ideal personality, how is a good personality embodied, what is a good and beautiful behavior, what is an ideal life, what are the rules of life, and what is the ideal state of life.

Confucius, therefore, was not concerned with the minimum norms of human behavior and moral obligations. For example, the phrase "to learn and to study at all times is not a pleasure" is not a descriptive statement in the Analects, but indicates that Confucius regarded "learning and studying at all times" as a good life activity and a human attitude worth advocating. However, "learning from time to time" is not an immoral behavior. Therefore, if human behavior can be classified as moral, immoral, non-moral, and super-moral, then a large number of statements in the Analects embody life ideals that are higher than the basic "moral" requirements, and contain a "super-moral" (super-obligatory) nature. The language of super-morality is affirmative and advocacy, but its realm is beyond the basic requirements of "morality".

In the Analects, the most prominent expression of these ideas of Confucius is "a gentleman ......", occasionally also "a scholar ... ...". What is most often expressed in the Analects is Confucius' ideals, attitudes, behaviors, and standards of conduct regarding the life of the scholar and the gentleman. Although there are adults, good people and saints in Confucius' theory of personality, the most typical is "gentleman".

The term "gentleman" in the Western Zhou Dynasty and the early Spring and Autumn Period mainly referred to the aristocracy, said Zhang Hengshou, "The term "gentleman" in ancient times originally referred to the ruling class of the aristocracy of the scholars, and there were no exceptions to this term, whether it was in the books of Shangshu or the Classic of Poetry. By the time the Analects were written, the term gentleman was used differently." He pointed out that the usage of the term gentleman followed the previous usage of referring exclusively to nobles with managerial status, on the one hand, and on the other hand, developed the usage of referring exclusively to people with noble moral qualities. This is the contribution of Confucius, who used the theory of "gentleman" to synthesize and state the form of the ideal personality, and the usage of gentleman in Chinese culture after the Han Dynasty refers to the personality with high moral qualities.

In the Analects of Confucius, the "Way of the Gentleman" and the virtue of the "Gentleman" are the main themes. In this sense, Confucius no longer focuses on the interpretation of individual virtues, such as which virtues are good and which virtues are bad; rather, he discusses collectively the virtues that belong to a "gentleman". Confucius' discussion of specific virtues is also within the overall framework of the "gentleman". Therefore, Confucius's discussion has gone beyond individual virtues into the integrated personality, in which the discussion of the gentleman is not included in the theory of virtue. For example:

The gentleman seeks the way not to seek food,...... worry about the way not to worry about poverty. (Wei Linggong)

Shi Zhi Dao, but the shame of bad clothes and food, not enough to discuss. (Li Ren)

"Shi Zhi in the Road" shows that Shi is a person with high ideals, that is, the gentleman is to "seek the Road" "worry about the Road" as the ultimate concern. A scholar gentleman, his will and pursuit is not a material life, he is suspected of pursuing the social and moral ideals. Such a gentleman's personality, not narrowly defined moral ethics can be accommodated.